Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.23wmf19 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Book Book talk Draft Draft talk Education Program Education Program talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk 0 10 381202555 381200179 2010-08-26T22:38:36Z OlEnglish 7181920 [[Help:Reverting|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/76.28.186.133|76.28.186.133]] ([[User talk:76.28.186.133|talk]]) to last version by Gurch #REDIRECT [[Computer accessibility]] {{R from CamelCase}} lo15ponaybcg2sf49sstw9gdjmdetnk wikitext text/x-wiki 0 12 602302118 602217275 2014-04-01T18:41:34Z Eduen 7527773 this section is only for sources on anarchism in general. the taz book is nice but is not a source on anarchism in general {{Redirect|Anarchist|the fictional character|Anarchist (comics)}} {{Redirect|Anarchists}} {{Use British English|date=January 2014}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Anarchism sidebar}} '''Anarchism''' is a [[political philosophy]] that advocates [[stateless society|stateless societies]] often defined as [[self-governance|self-governed]] voluntary institutions,<ref>"ANARCHISM, a social philosophy that rejects authoritarian government and maintains that voluntary institutions are best suited to express man's natural social tendencies." George Woodcock. "Anarchism" at The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref><ref>"In a society developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin___Anarchism__from_the_Encyclopaedia_Britannica.html Peter Kropotkin. "Anarchism" from the Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref><ref>"Anarchism." The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. p. 14 "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable."</ref><ref>Sheehan, Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85</ref> but that several authors have defined as more specific institutions based on non-[[Hierarchy|hierarchical]] [[Free association (communism and anarchism)|free associations]].<ref>"as many anarchists have stressed, it is not government as such that they find objectionable, but the hierarchical forms of government associated with the nation state." Judith Suissa. ''Anarchism and Education: a Philosophical Perspective''. Routledge. New York. 2006. p. 7</ref><ref name="iaf-ifa.org"/><ref>"That is why Anarchy, when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects, when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that serves to impose them, when it refuses all hierarchical organisation and preaches free agreement — at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the precious kernel of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist." [[Peter Kropotkin]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Anarchism__its_philosophy_and_ideal.html Anarchism: its philosophy and ideal]</ref><ref>"anarchists are opposed to irrational (e.g., illegitimate) authority, in other words, hierarchy — hierarchy being the institutionalisation of authority within a society." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/The_Anarchist_FAQ_Editorial_Collective__An_Anarchist_FAQ__03_17_.html#toc2 "B.1 Why are anarchists against authority and hierarchy?"] in [[An Anarchist FAQ]]</ref> Anarchism holds the [[state (polity)|state]] to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful.<ref name="definition"> {{cite journal |last=Malatesta|first=Errico|title=Towards Anarchism|journal=MAN!|publisher=International Group of San Francisco|location=Los Angeles|oclc=3930443|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20121107221404/http://marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm|archivedate=7 November 2012 |deadurl=no|authorlink=Errico Malatesta |ref=harv}} {{cite journal |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home/ |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070516094548/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home |archivedate=16 May 2007 |deadurl=yes |title=Working for The Man |journal=[[The Globe and Mail]] |accessdate=14 April 2008 |last=Agrell |first=Siri |date=14 May 2007 |ref=harv }} {{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285|title=Anarchism|year=2006|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service|accessdate=29 August 2006| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20061214085638/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285| archivedate= 14 December 2006<!--Added by DASHBot-->}} {{cite journal |year=2005|title=Anarchism|journal=The Shorter [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|page=14|quote=Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable. |ref=harv}} The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: {{cite book | last = Mclaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-7546-6196-2 |page=59}} {{cite book | last = Johnston | first = R. | title = The Dictionary of Human Geography | publisher = Blackwell Publishers | location = Cambridge | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-631-20561-6 |page=24}}</ref><ref name=slevin>Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref> While anti-statism is central, some argue<ref>"Anarchists do reject the state, as we will see. But to claim that this central aspect of anarchism is definitive is to sell anarchism short."[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=kkj5i3CeGbQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism'' by Paul McLaughlin. AshGate. 2007. p. 28]</ref> that anarchism entails opposing [[authority]] or [[hierarchical organisation]] in the conduct of human relations, including, but not limited to, the state system.<ref name="iaf-ifa.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html |title=IAF principles |publisher=[[International of Anarchist Federations]] |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120105095946/http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html |archivedate=5 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |quote=The IAF – IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual.}}</ref><ref>"Authority is defined in terms of the right to exercise social control (as explored in the "sociology of power") and the correlative duty to obey (as explored in the "philosophy of practical reason"). Anarchism is distinguished, philosophically, by its scepticism towards such moral relations – by its questioning of the claims made for such normative power – and, practically, by its challenge to those "authoritative" powers which cannot justify their claims and which are therefore deemed illegitimate or without moral foundation."[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=kkj5i3CeGbQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism'' by Paul McLaughlin. AshGate. 2007. p. 1]</ref><ref>"Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations." [[Emma Goldman]]. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in ''[[Anarchism and Other Essays]]''.</ref><ref>Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to authority as follows "They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left, – follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism&nbsp;... Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally; second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx." [[Benjamin Tucker]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Benjamin_Tucker__Individual_Liberty.html ''Individual Liberty.'']</ref><ref name="Ward 1966">{{cite web |url=http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html|last=Ward|first=Colin|year=1966|title=Anarchism as a Theory of Organization|accessdate=1 March 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100325081119/http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html| archivedate= 25 March 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref><ref>Anarchist historian [[George Woodcock]] report of [[Mikhail Bakunin]]'s anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (p. 9)&nbsp;... Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=L. Susan |chapter=Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism: Implications for Feminism |title=The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism and Anarchism |publisher=Black Rose Books Ltd. Publishing |year= 2002 |page=106}}</ref> As a subtle and anti-dogmatic philosophy, anarchism draws on many currents of thought and strategy. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular world view, instead fluxing and flowing as a philosophy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marshall|first=Peter|title=Demands The Impossible: A History Of Anarchism|year=2010|publisher=PM Press|location=Oakland, CA|isbn=978-1-60486-064-1|pages=16}}</ref> There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sylvan |first=Richard |chapter=Anarchism |title=A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy |editors=Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit |publisher=Philip. Blackwell Publishing |year=1995 |page=231}}</ref> [[Anarchist schools of thought]] can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme [[individualism]] to complete collectivism.<ref name=slevin/> Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of [[social anarchism|social]] and [[individualist anarchism]] or similar dual classifications.<ref name="black dict">[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.</ref><ref name=socind>{{cite book |authorlink=Peter Kropotkin |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |year=2002 |page=5|isbn=0-486-41955-X}}{{cite journal |author=R.B. Fowler|title=The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought|year=1972|journal=Western Political Quarterly|volume=25|issue=4|pages=738–752|doi=10.2307/446800|publisher=University of Utah|jstor=446800 |ref=harv}}</ref> Anarchism is often considered a radical left-wing ideology,<ref name=brooks>{{cite book |quote=Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today |last=Brooks |first=Frank H. |year=1994 |title=The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908) |publisher=Transaction Publishers |page=xi|isbn=1-56000-132-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Joseph Kahn|title= Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |year=2000|journal=[[The New York Times]]|issue=5 August |ref=harv}}{{cite journal |author=Colin Moynihan |title=Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway|year=2007|journal=New York Times|issue=16 April |ref=harv}}</ref> and much of [[anarchist economics]] and [[anarchist law|anarchist legal philosophy]] reflect [[Libertarian socialism|anti-authoritarian interpretations]] of [[anarcho-communism|communism]], [[collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], or [[participatory economics]].<ref>"The anarchists were unanimous in subjecting authoritarian socialism to a barrage of severe criticism. At the time when they made violent and satirical attacks these were not entirely well founded, for those to whom they were addressed were either primitive or “vulgar” communists, whose thought had not yet been fertilized by Marxist humanism, or else, in the case of Marx and Engels themselves, were not as set on authority and state control as the anarchists made out." Daniel Guerin, ''[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/daniel-guerin-anarchism-from-theory-to-practice#toc2 Anarchism: From Theory to Practice]'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970)</ref> The central tendency of anarchism as a social movement has been represented by [[Anarchist communism|anarcho-communism]] and [[anarcho-syndicalism]], with [[individualist anarchism]] being primarily a literary phenomenon<ref>[[Alexandre Skirda|Skirda, Alexandre]]. ''Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968''. AK Press, 2002, p. 191.</ref> which nevertheless did have an impact on the bigger currents<ref>Catalan historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press was widely read by members of [[anarcho-communist]] groups and by members of the [[anarcho-syndicalist]] trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as [[Federico Urales]] and [[Miguel Gimenez Igualada]] who were members of the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]]. Xavier Diez. ''El anarquismo individualista en España: 1923–1938.'' ISBN 978-84-96044-87-6</ref> and individualists have also participated in large anarchist organisations.<ref><!--The exact location of this excerpt should be added to the reference.-->{{cite web |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20070930014916/http://public.federation-anarchiste.org/IMG/pdf/Cedric_Guerin_Histoire_du_mvt_libertaire_1950_1970.pdf |title=Pensée et action des anarchistes en France: 1950–1970 |last=Guérin |first=Cédric |page= |pages= |at= |language=French |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070930014916/http://public.federation-anarchiste.org/IMG/pdf/Cedric_Guerin_Histoire_du_mvt_libertaire_1950_1970.pdf |archivedate=30 September 2007 |deadurl=yes |quote=Within the [[Synthesis anarchism|synthesist]] anarchist organisation, the [[Fédération Anarchiste]], there existed an individualist anarchist tendency alongside anarcho-communist and anarchosyndicalist currents. Individualist anarchists participating inside the [[Fédération Anarchiste]] included [[Charles-Auguste Bontemps]], Georges Vincey and André Arru.}}</ref><ref>In Italy in 1945, during the Founding Congress of the [[Italian Anarchist Federation]], there was a group of individualist anarchists led by Cesare Zaccaria who was an important anarchist of the time.[http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/73n6nh Cesare Zaccaria (19 August 1897 – October 1961) by Pier Carlo Masini and Paul Sharkey]</ref> Many anarchists [[non-aggression principle|oppose all forms of aggression]], supporting [[self-defense]] or [[non-violence]] ([[anarcho-pacifism]]),<ref name="ppu.org.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |title="Resisting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard |publisher=Ppu.org.uk |date=6 August 1945 |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref><ref name="Anarchism 1962">[[George Woodcock]]. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (1962)</ref> while others have supported the use of some [[coercion|coercive]] measures, including violent revolution and [[propaganda of the deed]], on the path to an anarchist society.<ref>Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." ''The Western Political Quarterly'', Vol. 25, No. 4. (December 1972), pp. 743–44.</ref> ==Etymology and terminology== {{Related articles|Anarchist terminology}} The term ''[[wikt:anarchism|anarchism]]'' is a compound word composed from the word ''[[anarchy]]'' and the suffix ''[[-ism]]'',<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anarchism&allowed_in_frame=0 Anarchism], [[Online etymology dictionary]].</ref> themselves derived respectively from the Greek {{lang|grc|ἀναρχία}}, i.e. ''anarchy''<ref>{{LSJ|a)narxi/a|ἀναρχία|ref}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy Anarchy], [[Merriam-Webster]] online.</ref><ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=anarchy&allowed_in_frame=0 Anarchy], [[Online etymology dictionary]].</ref> (from {{lang|grc|ἄναρχος}}, ''anarchos'', meaning "one without rulers";<ref>{{LSJ|a)/narxos|ἄναρχος|ref}}.</ref> from the [[privative]] prefix [[privative alpha|ἀν]]- (''an-'', i.e. "without") + {{lang|grc|ἀρχός}}, ''archos'', i.e. "leader", "ruler";<ref>{{LSJ|a)rxo/s|ἀρχός|ref}}</ref> (cf. ''[[archon]]'' or {{lang|grc|ἀρχή}}, ''arkhē'', i.e. "authority", "sovereignty", "realm", "magistracy")<ref>{{LSJ|a)rxh/|ἀρχή|ref}}.</ref>) and the suffix {{lang|grc|-ισμός}} or {{lang|grc|-ισμα}} (''-ismos'', ''-isma'', from the verbal [[infinitive]] suffix -ιζειν, ''-izein'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=-ism&allowed_in_frame=0 -ism], [[Online etymology dictionary]].</ref> The first known use of this word was in 1539.<ref>"Origin of ANARCHY Medieval Latin anarchia, from Greek, from anarchos having no ruler, from an- + archos ruler — more at arch- First Known Use: 1539" [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchy "Anarchy" at Merriam Webster dictionary online]</ref>''Anarchist'' was the term adopted by [[Maximilien de Robespierre]] to attack those on the left whom he had used for his own ends during the French Revolution but was determined to get rid of, though among these "anarchists" there were few who exhibited the social revolt characteristics of later anarchists. There would be many revolutionaries of the early nineteenth century who contributed to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, such as [[William Godwin]] and [[Wilhelm Weitling]], but they did not use the word ''anarchist'' or ''anarchism'' in describing themselves or their beliefs.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Anarchists |last=Joll |first=James |year=1964 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-03642-5 |pages=27–37}}</ref> [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] was the first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist, marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-nineteenth century. Since the 1890s from France,<ref>{{cite book |title=A Short History of Anarchism |last=Nettlau |first=Max |authorlink=Max Nettlau |year=1996 |publisher=Freedom Press |isbn=0-900384-89-1 |page=162}}</ref> the term ''libertarianism'' has often been used as a synonym for anarchism<ref>"At the end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word used in 1858 by one Joseph Dejacque to make it the title of a journal, Le Libertaire. Today the terms "anarchist" and "libertarian" have become interchangeable." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html#toc2 ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''] [[Daniel Guérin]]</ref> and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States;<ref>Russell, Dean. [http://www.boogieonline.com/revolution/politics/name.html ''Who is a Libertarian?''], [[Foundation for Economic Education]], "Ideas on Liberty," May 1955.</ref> its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.<ref> * Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62 * Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4 * MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with [[Dwight Macdonald]]. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82 * Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv * Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126 * [[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]]. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10) * [[Alexandre Skirda|Skirda, Alexandre]]. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183. * Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.</ref> On the other hand, some use ''[[libertarianism]]'' to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as ''[[libertarian anarchism]]''.<ref>Morris, Christopher. 1992. ''An Essay on the Modern State''. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. (Using "libertarian anarchism" synonymously with "individualist anarchism" when referring to individualist anarchism that supports a [[market economy|market society]]).</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Daniel C. |title= Libertarian anarchism |url= http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/polin/polin168.pdf |publisher=[[Libertarian Alliance]] |year= |page=}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of anarchism}} ===Origins=== [[Image:Levellers declaration and standard.gif|thumb|200px|Woodcut from a [[Diggers]] document by [[William Everard (Digger)|William Everard]]]] <!--Anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque, the first person to use the term "libertarian" in a political sense and self-proclaimed advocate of libertarianism, needs to be added here. His work and stances on anarchism are very relevant to this particular section of the article. Additionally, his criticisms of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's mutualism are very relevant here.--> The earliest<ref name="LVM">[http://mises.org/daily/2054#1.10 Taoism in Ancient China]</ref> anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosopher [[Laozi]],<ref name="EB1910">Peter Kropotkin, [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html "Anarchism"], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 1910.</ref> and in later centuries by [[Zhuangzi]] and Bao Jingyan.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-one-from-anarchy-to-anarchism-300ce-1939/ Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE-1939) « Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Zhuangzi's philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist.<ref>"The priority of dao over tiannature:sky underwrites the themes of dependency and relativism that pervade the Zhuangzi and ultimately the skepticism, the open-minded toleration and the political anarchism (or disinterest in political activity or involvement)." [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ "Taoism" at the Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref><ref>"Doing nothing [wu wei] is the famous Daoist concept for natural action, action in accord with Dao, action in which we freely follow our own way and allow other beings to do likewise. Zhuangzi, the great anarchic Daoist sage, compared it to "riding on the wind." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Max_Cafard__Zen_Anarchy.html Max Cafard. "Zen Anarchy"]</ref><ref>"Zhuangzi helps us discover an anarchistic epistemology and sensibility. He describes a state in which "you are open to everything you see and hear, and allow this to act through you."[45] Part of wuwei, doing without doing, is "knowing without knowing," knowing as being open to the things known, rather than conquering and possessing the objects of knowledge. This means not imposing our prejudices (whether our own personal ones, our culture's, or those built into the human mind) on the Ten Thousand Things." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Max_Cafard__The_Surre_gion_alist_Manifesto_and_Other_Writings.html#toc24 Max Cafard. ''The Surre(gion)alist Manifesto and Other Writings'']</ref><ref>"The next group of interpreters have also become incorporated into the extant version of the text. They are the school of anarchistically inclined philosophers, that Graham identifies as a "Primitivist" and a school of "Yangists," chapters 8 to 11, and 28 to 31. These thinkers appear to have been profoundly influenced by the Laozi, and also by the thought of the first and last of the Inner Chapters: "Wandering Beyond," and "Responding to Emperors and Kings." There are also possible signs of influence from Yang Zhu, whose concern was to protect and cultivate one's inner life-source. These chapters combine the anarchistic ideals of a simple life close to nature that can be found in the Laozi with the practices that lead to the cultivation and nurturing of life. " [http://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi/ "Zhuangzi (Chuang-Tzu, 369–298 BCE)" at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</ref> [[Zhuangzi]] wrote, "A petty thief is put in jail. A great [[wikt:brigand|brigand]] becomes a ruler of a Nation."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf|format=PDF|title=Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire|author=[[Murray Rothbard]]|accessdate=28 December 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081216214953/http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf| archivedate= 16 December 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> [[Diogenes of Sinope]] and the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]], their contemporary [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]], also introduced similar topics.<ref name="EB1910" /><ref>{{IEP|c/cynics.htm|Cynics|Julie Piering}}</ref> Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchist]] tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that "The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ and&nbsp;... the first anarchist society was that of the apostles."<ref>Cited in George Woodcock, ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1962), p. 38.</ref> In early Islamic history, some manifestations of anarchic thought are found during the [[Second Fitna|Islamic civil war]] over the [[Caliphate]], where the [[Kharijites]] insisted that the [[imamate]] is a right for each individual within the Islamic society.<ref>[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/mohamed-jean-veneuse-anarca-islam#fn_back31 Mohamed Jean Veneuse, ''Anarcha-Islam'', 2009]</ref> Later, some [[Muslim]] scholars, such as Amer al-Basri<ref>هادي العلوي, ''شخصيات غير قلقة في الإسلام'', دار الكنوز الأدبية، بيروت، 1995، ص36</ref> and [[Abu Hanifa]],<ref>هادي العلوي, ''شخصيات غير قلقة في الإسلام'', دار الكنوز الأدبية، بيروت، 1995، ص136</ref> led movements of boycotting the rulers, paving the way to the [[Waqf|''awqaf'']] (endowments) tradition, which served as an alternative to and asylum from the centralized authorities of the emirs. But such interpretations reverberates subversive religious conceptions like the aforementioned seemingly anarchistic Taoist teachings and that of other anti-authoritarian religious traditions creating a complex relationship regarding the question as to whether or not [[Anarchism and religion|anarchism and religion are compatible]]. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful [[idolatry]].<ref name=CritiqueofViolence>{{cite web |first=Alexandre |last=Christoyannopoulos |url=http://www.psa.ac.uk/journals/pdf/5/2010/1338_1226.pdf |title=A Christian Anarchist Critique of Violence: From Turning the Other Cheek to a Rejection of the State |pages= |date = March 2010|publisher= Political Studies Association}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel |last=Christoyannopoulos |first=Alexandre |authorlink=Alexandre Christoyannopoulos |coauthors= |year=2010 |publisher=Imprint Academic |location=Exeter |isbn= |page=254 |pages= |url= |accessdate= |quote=The state as idolatry}}</ref> The French [[Renaissance humanism|renaissance]] political philosopher [[Étienne de La Boétie]] wrote in his most famous work the ''Discourse on Voluntary Servitude'' what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent.<ref>Several historians of anarchism have gone so far as to classify La Botie's treatise itself as anarchist, which is incorrect since La botie never extended his analysis from tyrannical government to government per se. But while La Botie cannot be considered an anarchist, his sweeping strictures on tyranny and the universality of his political philosophy lend themselves easily to such an expansion.[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=6o-8P3iqf7IC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=anarchism+la+boetie&source=bl&ots=z79GU1rW1t&sig=4ini7oZUie2U8-P0BpMLogXYWPs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eAOFUJCYJ4Le9AT_iYG4DA&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=anarchism%20la%20boetie&f=false ''Introduction to The Politics of Obedience: The Discourse of Voluntary Servitude'' by Murray Rothbard. Ludwig Von Mises Institute. p. 18]</ref><ref>"Quite rightly, La Boëtie recognizes the potential for domination in any democracy: the democratic leader, elected by the people, becomes intoxicated with his own power and teeters increasingly towards tyranny. Indeed, we can see modern democracy itself as an instance of voluntary servitude on a mass scale. It is not so much that we participate in an illusion whereby we are deceived by elites into thinking we have a genuine say in decision-making. It is rather that democracy itself has encouraged a mass contentment with powerlessness and a general love of submission."[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/saul-newman-voluntary-servitude-reconsidered-radical-politics-and-the-problem-of-self-dominatio "Voluntary Servitude Reconsidered: Radical Politics and the Problem of Self-Domination"] [[Saul Newman]]</ref> The radical [[Protestant Christianity|Protestant Christian]] [[Gerrard Winstanley]] and his group the [[Diggers]] are cited by various authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England.<ref>"Anarchists have regarded the secular revolt of the Diggers, or True Levellers, in seventeenth-century England led by Gerrard Winstanley as a source of pride. Winstanley, deeming that property is corrupting, opposed clericalism, political power and privilege. It is economic inequality, he believed, that produces crime and misery. He championed a primitive communalism based on the pure teachings of God as comprehended through reason." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Kenneth_C._Wenzer__Godwin_s_Place_in_the_Anarchist_Tradition___a_Bicentennial_Tribute.html Kenneth C. Wenzer. "Godwin's Place in the Anarchist Tradition — a Bicentennial Tribute"]</ref><ref>"It was in these conditions of class struggle that, among a whole cluster of radical groups such as the Fifth Monarchy Men, the [[Levellers]] and the Ranters, there emerged perhaps the first real proto-anarchists, the Diggers, who like the classical 19th century anarchists identified political and economic power and who believed that a social, rather than political revolution was necessary for the establishment of justice. Gerrard Winstanley, the Diggers' leader, made an identification with the word of God and the principle of reason, an equivalent philosophy to that found in [[Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]''." Marlow. "Anarchism and Christianity"</ref><ref>"Although Proudhon was the first writer to call himself an anarchist, at least two predecessors outlined systems that contain all the basic elements of anarchism. The first was Gerrard Winstanley (1609–c. 1660), a linen draper who led the small movement of the Diggers during the Commonwealth. Winstanley and his followers protested in the name of a radical Christianity against the economic distress that followed the Civil War and against the inequality that the grandees of the New Model Army seemed intent on preserving. In 1649–1650 the Diggers squatted on stretches of common land in southern England and attempted to set up communities based on work on the land and the sharing of goods." George Woodcock Anarchism The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> The term "anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642, during the [[English Civil War]], as a [[Pejorative|term of abuse]], used by [[Cavalier|Royalists]] against their [[Roundhead]] opponents.<ref name=bbc>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20061207.shtml "Anarchism"], [[BBC Radio 4]] program, [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]], Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by [[Melvyn Bragg]] of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at [[University of Westminster]], [[Ruth Kinna]], Senior Lecturer in Politics at [[Loughborough University]], and [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]], philosopher and historian.</ref> By the time of the [[French Revolution]] some, such as the ''[[Enragés]]'', began to use the term positively,<ref>Sheehan, Sean. ''Anarchism'', London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85.</ref> in opposition to [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as [[oxymoron]]ic.<ref name=bbc/> By the turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its initial negative connotation.<ref name=bbc/> Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], particularly [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.<ref name=Encarta>"Anarchism", ''[[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia'' 2006 (UK version).</ref> As part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the [[French Revolution]], [[William Godwin]] developed the first expression of [[anarchist schools of thought|modern anarchist thought]].<ref name="Everhart, Robert B 1982. p. 115">Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115.</ref><ref name="godwinsep" /> Godwin was, according to [[Peter Kropotkin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work",<ref name="EB1910" /> while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early [[Edmund Burke]].<ref>Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to [[Edmund Burke]]'s '' [[A Vindication of Natural Society]]''. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's ''Vindication of Natural Society''; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence&nbsp;..." – footnote, Ch. 2 ''[[Political Justice]]'' by William Godwin.</ref> [[File:WilliamGodwin.jpg|left|thumb|[[William Godwin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".<ref name="EB1910">Peter Kropotkin, [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html "Anarchism"], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 1910.</ref>]] Godwin is generally regarded as the founder of the school of thought known as 'philosophical anarchism'. He argued in ''[[Political Justice]]'' (1793)<ref name="godwinsep" /><ref name="Adams, Ian 2001. p. 116">Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116.</ref> that government has an inherently malevolent influence on society, and that it perpetuates dependency and ignorance. He thought that the spread of the use of reason to the masses would eventually cause government to wither away as an unnecessary force. Although he did not accord the state with moral legitimacy, he was against the use of revolutionary tactics for removing the government from power. Rather, he advocated for its replacement through a process of peaceful evolution.<ref name="godwinsep">{{sep entry|godwin|William Godwin|Mark Philip|2006-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]] |last=Godwin |first=William |authorlink=William Godwin |year=1796 |publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson |oclc=2340417 |origyear=1793}}</ref> His aversion to the imposition of a rules-based society led him to denounce, as a manifestation of the people’s ‘mental enslavement’, the foundations of [[law]], [[property rights]] and even the institution of [[marriage]]. He considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organisation. In each case, government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of our capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgment. The French [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] is regarded as the first ''self-proclaimed'' anarchist, a label he adopted in his groundbreaking work ''[[What is Property?]]'', published in 1840. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory.<ref>Daniel Guerin, ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).</ref> He developed the theory of [[spontaneous order]] in society, where organisation emerges without a central coordinator imposing its own idea of order against the wills of individuals acting in their own interests; his famous quote on the matter is, "Liberty is the mother, not the daughter, of order." In ''What is Property?'' Proudhon answers with the famous accusation "[[Property is theft]]." In this work, he opposed the institution of decreed "property" (''propriété''), where owners have complete rights to "use and abuse" their property as they wish.<ref name="proudhon-prop">[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], Pierre-Joseph. ''"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/ch03.htm Chapter 3. Labour as the efficient cause of the domain of property]"'' from ''"[[What is Property?]]"'', 1840</ref> He contrasted this with what he called "possession," or limited ownership of resources and goods only while in more or less continuous use. Later, however, Proudhon added that "Property is Liberty," and argued that it was a bulwark against state power.<ref>Edwards, Stewart. Introduction to ''Selected Writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon'', Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company, Inc. 1969, p. 33</ref> His opposition to the state, organised religion, and certain capitalist practices inspired subsequent anarchists, and made him one of the leading social thinkers of his time. The anarcho-communist [[Joseph Déjacque]] was the first person to describe himself as "[[libertarian socialism|libertarian]]".<ref name="Dejacque">Joseph Déjacque, [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in French)</ref> Unlike [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], he argued that, "it is not the product of his or her labour that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature."<ref>"l'Echange", article in ''Le Libertaire'' no 6, 21 September 1858, New York. [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/libertaire/n06/lib01.htm]</ref> In 1844 in Germany the post-hegelian philosopher [[Max Stirner]] published the book ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'' which will later be considered an influential early text of [[individualist anarchism]].<ref name = "SEP-Stirner" /> Anarchists active in the [[1848 Revolution]] in France, included [[Anselme Bellegarrigue]], Ernest Coeurderoy, [[Joseph Déjacque]]<ref name="Dejacque">Joseph Déjacque, [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in French)</ref> and [[Pierre Joseph Proudhon]].<ref>[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/pierre-joseph-proudhon-toast-to-the-revolution Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. "Toast to the Revolution"]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com.ec/books/about/L_acitivit%C3%A9_d_un_socialiste_de_1848.html?id=wbrfSAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y Elisa Sudan. L'acitivité d'un socialiste de 1848: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Galley & Cie, 1921, 63 pages]</ref> ===First International and the Paris Commune=== {{Main|International Workingmen's Association|Paris Commune}} [[File:Bakunin.png|thumb|Collectivist anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] opposed the [[Marxist]] aim of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.<ref name=bbc/>]] In Europe, harsh reaction followed the [[revolutions of 1848]], during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Breunig |first=Charles |title=The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850 |year=1977 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |location=New York, N.Y |isbn=0-393-09143-0 }}</ref> In 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]],<ref>{{cite book | last = Blin | first = Arnaud | title = The History of Terrorism | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-520-24709-4 |page=116}}</ref> [[Blanquism|Blanquists]], [[Philadelphes]], English trade unionists, socialists and [[social democrats]]. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organisation. [[Karl Marx]] became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualists]], opposed Marx's [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dodson | first = Edward | title = The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2 | publisher = Authorhouse | page=312 | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-595-24912-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge & Kegan Paul |ref=harv | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=187}}</ref> In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the [[League of Peace and Freedom]] (LPF), Russian revolutionary [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his [[collectivist anarchism|collectivist anarchist]] associates joined the First International (which had decided not to get involved with the LPF).<ref>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = Routledge and Kegan Paul | location = London | year = 1980 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=304}}</ref> They allied themselves with the [[federalist]] socialist sections of the International,<ref>{{cite book | last = Bak | first = Jǹos | title = Liberty and Socialism | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-8476-7680-3 |page=236}}</ref> who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.<ref>{{cite book | last = Engel | first = Barbara | title = Mothers and Daughters | publisher = Northwestern University Press | location = Evanston | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-8101-1740-1 |page=140}}</ref> Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[centralism|centralist]] and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref name="bakuninmarx" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Bakunin|first=Mikhail|authorlink=Mikhail Bakunin|origyear=1873|year=1991|title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-36973-8}}</ref> Anarchist historian [[George Woodcock]] reports that "The annual Congress of the International had not taken place in 1870 owing to the outbreak of the Paris Commune, and in 1871 the General Council called only a special conference in London. One delegate was able to attend from Spain and none from Italy, while a technical excuse – that they had split away from the Fédération Romande – was used to avoid inviting Bakunin's Swiss supporters. Thus only a tiny minority of anarchists was present, and the General Council's resolutions passed almost unanimously. Most of them were clearly directed against Bakunin and his followers."<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]], where Bakunin and [[James Guillaume]] were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the [[Anarchist St. Imier International|St. Imier Congress]], adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.<ref name=Graham-05>Graham, Robert '[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm ''Anarchism''] (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1-55164-251-4.</ref> The [[Paris Commune]] was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally, from 28 March) to 28 May 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Anarchists participated actively in the establishment of the Paris Commune. They included {{quote|[[Louise Michel]], the Reclus brothers, and [[Eugene Varlin]] (the latter murdered in the repression afterwards). As for the reforms initiated by the Commune, such as the re-opening of workplaces as co-operatives, anarchists can see their ideas of associated labour beginning to be realised&nbsp;... Moreover, the Commune's ideas on federation obviously reflected the influence of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] on French radical ideas. Indeed, the Commune's vision of a communal France based on a federation of delegates bound by imperative mandates issued by their electors and subject to recall at any moment echoes Bakunin's and Proudhon's ideas (Proudhon, like Bakunin, had argued in favour of the "implementation of the binding mandate" in 1848&nbsp;... and for federation of communes). Thus both economically and politically the Paris Commune was heavily influenced by anarchist ideas.<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/writers/anarcho/commune.html "The Paris Commune" by Anarcho]</ref>}} George Woodcock states: {{quote|a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organisation of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the [[Collectivist anarchism|libertarian collectivists]] Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and [[Elisée Reclus]] and Louise Michel.<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/>}} ===Organised labour=== {{Main|Anarcho-syndicalism|International Workers' Association|Anarchism in Spain|Spanish Revolution}} The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organisation of labour."<ref>Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p. 100 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm]</ref> In 1886, the [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour work day]] would become standard.<ref name=foner/> [[File:ChicagoAnarchists.jpg|left|thumb|A sympathetic engraving by [[Walter Crane]] of the executed "Anarchists of Chicago" after the [[Haymarket affair]]. The Haymarket affair is generally considered the most significant event for the origin of international May Day observances]] In response, unions across the United States prepared a [[general strike]] in support of the event.<ref name=foner/> On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when [[strikebreaker]]s attempted to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |year=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-00600-8 |page=190}}</ref> The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=193 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan |title=Patrolman Mathias J. Degan |accessdate=19 January 2008 |publisher=The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080118084649/http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan| archivedate= 18 January 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 27 June 1886, quoted in {{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=209 |isbn=0-691-04711-1 }}</ref> Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.<ref name='the bomb'>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm |title=Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here |accessdate=19 January 2008 |year=2000 |work=The Dramas of Haymarket |publisher=Chicago Historical Society | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080115030929/http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm| archivedate= 15 January 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the [[Haymarket affair]], and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight-hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight-hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |title=May Day |page=42 |isbn=0-7178-0624-3 }}</ref> Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of [[International Workers' Day]] on May Day had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday.<ref name=foner>{{cite book | last = Foner | first = Philip Sheldon | title = May day: a short history of the international workers' holiday, 1886–1986 | publisher = International Publishers | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-7178-0624-3 |page=56}}</ref> In 1907, the [[International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam]] gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Pierre Monatte]], [[Luigi Fabbri]], [[Benoît Broutchoux]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Rudolf Rocker]], and [[Christiaan Cornelissen]]. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, [[popular education]] issues, the [[general strike]] or [[antimilitarism]]. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and [[syndicalism]] (or [[trade union]]ism). Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a [[social revolution]], while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.<ref>[http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=225 Extract of Malatesta's declaration] {{fr icon}}</ref> He thought that the trade-union movement was [[reformism|reformist]] and even [[Conservatism|conservative]], citing as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of professional union officials. Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it.<ref>{{cite book | last = Skirda | first = Alexandre | title = [[Facing the Enemy|Facing the enemy: a history of anarchist organization from Proudhon to May 1968]] | publisher = [[A. K. Press]] | year = 2002 | isbn = 1-902593-19-7 |page=89 }}</ref> The [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|Spanish Workers Federation]] in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics, attracting 1.58 million members at one point and playing a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |year=2006 |title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84832-5 |page=24 }}</ref> The CNT was affiliated with the [[International Workers Association]], a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. In Latin America in particular "The anarchists quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers throughout South and Central America, and until the early 1920s most of the trade unions in [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]], [[Anarchism in Brazil|Brazil]], Peru, Chile, and Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook; the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organization was undoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation. The largest and most militant of these organizations was the [[Federación Obrera Regional Argentina]]&nbsp;... it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a quarter of a million, which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions."<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> ===Propaganda of the deed and illegalism=== {{Main|Propaganda of the deed|Illegalism|Expropriative anarchism}} [[File:Lugi Gallean2.jpg|right|thumb|[[Italian-American]] anarchist [[Luigi Galleani]]. His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people']] Some anarchists, such as [[Johann Most]], advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html |title="Action as Propaganda" by Johann Most, 25 July 1885 |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=21 April 2003 |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> By the 1880s, people inside and outside the anarchist movement began to use the slogan, "propaganda of the deed" to refer to individual bombings, [[regicide]]s, and [[tyrannicide]]s. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal '[[Confiscation|expropriations]]'."<ref>{{Wayback |date=20090312022528 |url=http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/txt_anok_comm_ap.htm |title="Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam }}</ref> [[Illegalism]] as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("[[propaganda by the deed]]") and the anarchist burglars ("[[individual reappropriation]]") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be ''exemplary'' invitations to revolt.".<ref name="illegalism">[http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm The "illegalists" by Doug Imrie. From "Anarchy: a Journal Of Desire Armed", Fall–Winter, 1994–95]</ref> France's [[Bonnot Gang]] was the most famous group to embrace illegalism. However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts. [[Peter Kropotkin]] thus wrote that year in ''Le Révolté'' that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite".<ref>quoted in Billington, James H. 1998. ''Fire in the minds of men: origins of the revolutionary faith'' New Jersey: Transaction Books, p 417.</ref> A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favour of collective revolutionary action, for example through the [[trade union]] movement. The [[anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]], [[Fernand Pelloutier]], argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labour movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm |title=Table Of Contents |publisher=Blackrosebooks.net |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> [[Political repression|State repression]] (including the infamous 1894 French ''[[lois scélérates]]'') of the anarchist and [[labour movement]]s following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally state repression, in the first place, may have played a role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French [[socialist movement]], into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871 [[Paris Commune]], the execution and exile of many ''[[communards]]'' to [[penal colonies]], favoured individualist political expression and acts.<ref>Historian [[Benedict Anderson]] thus writes: <blockquote> "In March 1871 the Commune took power in the abandoned city and held it for two months. Then [[Adolphe Thiers|Versailles]] seized the moment to attack and, in one horrifying week, executed roughly 20,000 Communards or suspected sympathizers, a number higher than those killed in the recent war or during [[Robespierre]]'s '[[Reign of Terror|Terror]]' of 1793–1794. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like New Caledonia. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organising on the left. Not till 1880 was there a general amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards. Meanwhile, the Third Republic found itself strong enough to renew and reinforce [[Napoleon III of France|Louis Napoleon]]'s imperialist expansion – in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania. Many of France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the Commune ([[Gustave Courbet|Courbet]] was its quasi-minister of culture, [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]] and [[Pissarro]] were active propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious repression of 1871 and thereafter, was probably the key factor in alienating these milieux from the Third Republic and stirring their sympathy for its victims at home and abroad." (in {{cite news |author=Benedict Anderson |title=In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel |publisher=[[New Left Review]]|date=July–August 2004|url=http://newleftreview.org/?view=2519}}) </blockquote> According to some analysts, in [[History of Germany since 1945|post-war Germany]], the prohibition of the [[Communist Party of Germany|Communist Party]] (KDP) and thus of institutional far-left political organisation may also, in the same manner, have played a role in the creation of the [[Red Army Faction]].</ref> Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement. For example, U.S. [[William McKinley|President McKinley]]'s assassin [[Leon Czolgosz]] claimed to have been influenced by anarchist and [[feminist]] [[Emma Goldman]]. Bombings were associated in the media with anarchists because [[international terrorism]] arose during this time period with the widespread distribution of dynamite. This image remains to this day. Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist movement after World War I (1914–1918) and the [[1917 October Revolution]]. ===Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s=== {{Main|Anarchism in Russia|Russian Revolution (1917)|Revolutions of 1917–23}} [[File:Makhno group.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nestor Makhno]] with members of the anarchist [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]]]] Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolshevik]]s in both [[February Revolution|February]] and [[October Revolution|October revolutions]], and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dirlik | first = Arif | title = Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-520-07297-9 }}</ref> However, following a political falling out with the Bolsheviks by the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, the conflict culminated in the 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion]], which the new government repressed. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to the [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Avrich | first = Paul | title = The Russian Anarchists | publisher = AK Press | location = Stirling | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-904859-48-8 |page=204}}</ref> There, in the [[Free Territory (Ukraine)|Free Territory]], they fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against the [[White movement|Whites]] (a grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] led by [[Nestor Makhno]], who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months. Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt uprising]], before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticising the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist" Marxist state would become a new elite had proved all too true.<ref name="bakuninmarx">"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/karl-marx.htm On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx]" in ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971.</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma | title = [[My Disillusionment in Russia]] |chapter=Preface |page=xx | publisher = Dover Publications | location = New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-486-43270-X |quote= My critic further charged me with believing that "had the Russians made the Revolution à la Bakunin instead of à la Marx" the result would have been different and more satisfactory. I plead guilty to the charge. In truth, I not only believe so; I am certain of it.}}</ref> The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; [[Communist party|Communist parties]] grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, for example, members of the major syndicalist movements of the [[Confédération générale du travail|CGT]] and [[Industrial Workers of the World|IWW]] left the organisations and joined the [[Comintern|Communist International]].<ref>{{cite book | editor1-last = Drachkovitch | editor1-first = Milorad M. |first=Max |last=Nomad |contribution=The Anarchist Tradition |title = Revolutionary Internationals 1864 1943 | publisher = Stanford University Press |page=88 | year = 1966 | isbn = 0-8047-0293-4 }}</ref> The [[Revolutions of 1917–23|revolutionary wave of 1917–23]] saw the active participation of anarchists in varying degrees of protagonism. In the German uprising known as the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919]] which established the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]] the anarchists [[Gustav Landauer]], [[Silvio Gesell]] and [[Erich Mühsam]] had important leadership positions within the revolutionary [[Council communism|councilist]] structures.<ref>"The Munich Soviet (or "Council Republic") of 1919 exhibited certain features of the TAZ, even though — like most revolutions — its stated goals were not exactly "temporary." Gustav Landauer's participation as Minister of Culture along with Silvio Gesell as Minister of Economics and other anti-authoritarian and extreme libertarian socialists such as the poet/playwrights Erich Mühsam and Ernst Toller, and Ret Marut (the novelist B. Traven), gave the Soviet a distinct anarchist flavor." [[Hakim Bey]]. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Hakim_Bey__T.A.Z.__The_Temporary_Autonomous_Zone__Ontological_Anarchy__Poetic_Terrorism.html "T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Poetic Terrorism"]</ref><ref name="br.de">{{cite web |url= http://www.br.de/themen/bayern/inhalt/geschichte/bayern-revolution-1919-erste-raeterepublik100.html |title=Die bayerische Revolution 1918/19: Die erste Räterepublik: Literaten an der Macht |trans_title=The Bavarian Revolution 1918/19: The first Soviet Republic: Literati in Power |language=German |work=[http://www.br.de/themen/bayern/inhalt/geschichte/bayern-revolution-raeterepublik100.html Die bayerische Revolution 1918/19] |location=Munich, Bavaria, Germany |publisher=[[Bayerischer Rundfunk]] |accessdate=1 September 2012}}</ref> In the Italian events known as the ''[[biennio rosso]]''<ref name="Dallacasa">Brunella Dalla Casa, ''Composizione di classe, rivendicazioni e professionalità nelle lotte del "biennio rosso" a Bologna'', in: AA. VV, ''Bologna 1920; le origini del fascismo'', a cura di Luciano Casali, Cappelli, Bologna 1982, pag. 179.</ref> the anarcho-syndicalist trade union [[Unione Sindacale Italiana]] "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus ''[[Umanita Nova]]'', its daily paper) grew accordingly&nbsp;... Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces.<ref>[http://libcom.org/history/articles/italy-factory-occupations-1920 "1918–1921: The Italian factory occupations – Biennio Rosso"] on [[libcom.org]]</ref> In the [[Mexican Revolution]] the [[Mexican Liberal Party]] was established and during the early 1910s it lead a series of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts in [[Baja California]] with the leadership of anarcho-communist [[Ricardo Flores Magón]].<ref>[http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/99winter/magonista.htm "The Magonista Revolt in Baja California Capitalist Conspiracy or Rebelion de los Pobres?" by Lawrence D. Taylor]</ref> In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included [[Nestor Makhno]], concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the ''[[Platformism|Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)]]'',<ref name=Platformtext>{{cite book |last=Dielo Trouda |authorlink=Dielo Truda |title=Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) |origyear=1926 |url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 |accessdate=24 October 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=FdCA |location=Italy| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070311013533/http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000| archivedate= 11 March 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> was supported. [[Platformist]] groups active today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland and the [[NEFAC|North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] of North America. [[Synthesis anarchism]] emerged as an organisational alternative to platformism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of [[anarchism without adjectives]].<ref name="infoshop.org">{{cite web |author=Starhawk |url=http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 |title="J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?"|work=[[An Anarchist FAQ]]|publisher=Infoshop.org |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101007160139/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3| archivedate= 7 October 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents [[Volin]] and [[Sebastien Faure]].<ref name="infoshop.org"/> It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global [[International of Anarchist Federations]].<ref name="infoshop.org"/> ===Conflicts with European fascist regimes=== {{Main|Anti-fascism}}{{See also|Anarchism in France|Anarchism in Italy|Anarchism in Spain}} [[File:Members of the Maquis in La Tresorerie.jpg|thumb|right|Anti-fascist [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]], who resisted [[Nazism|Nazi]] and [[Francisco Franco|Francoist]] rule in Europe.]] In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of fascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]] played a key role in the [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] organisation ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions, and achieved some success in their activism, such as repelling [[Blackshirts]] in the anarchist stronghold of [[Parma]] in August 1922.<ref>Holbrow, Marnie, [http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=8205 "Daring but Divided"] (''Socialist Review'' November 2002).</ref> The veteran Italian anarchist, [[Luigi Fabbri]], was one of the first critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the preventive counter-revolution." <ref name=autogenerated1 /> In France, where the [[far right leagues]] came close to insurrection in the [[6 February 1934 crisis|February 1934 riots]], anarchists divided over a [[united front]] policy.<ref>Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." ''Le Libertaire''. August 1936.</ref> Anarchists in [[Anarchism in France|France]]<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/texts/war/anarFranceWW2.html "Anarchist Activity in France during World War Two"]</ref> and [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]<ref>[http://libcom.org/history/articles/italian-resistance-anarchist-partisans-1943 "1943–1945: Anarchist partisans in the Italian Resistance"] on [[libcom.org]]</ref> were active in the [[Resistance during World War II]]. In Germany the anarchist [[Erich Mühsam]] was arrested on charges unknown in the early morning hours of 28 February 1933, within a few hours after the [[Reichstag fire]] in Berlin. [[Joseph Goebbels]], the Nazi [[Propagandaministerium|propaganda minister]], labelled him as one of "those Jewish subversives." Over the next seventeen months, he would be imprisoned in the concentration camps at [[Sonnenburg]], Brandenburg and finally, [[Oranienburg]]. On 2 February 1934, Mühsam was transferred to the [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camp]] at [[Oranienburg concentration camp|Oranienburg]] when finally on the night of 9 July 1934, Mühsam was tortured and murdered by the guards, his battered corpse found hanging in a latrine the next morning.<ref name=" Shepherd">{{cite book |last=Mühsam|first=Erich|editor=David A. Shepherd|title=Thunderation!/Alle Wetter!: Folk Play With Song and Dance/Volksstuck Mit Gesang Und Tanz|url=http://books.google.com/?id=jspUxzlyZIQC&pg=PA18&dq=%22Erich+M%C3%BChsam%22+Oranienburg#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2001|publisher=[[Bucknell University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8387-5416-0|page=18}}</ref> === Spanish Revolution === {{Main|Spanish Revolution}} [[File:Buenaventura durruti.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|[[Buenaventura Durruti]], central figure of [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish anarchism]] during the period leading up to and including the [[Spanish Civil War]].]] In Spain, the national anarcho-syndicalist trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beevor |first=Antony |authorlink=Antony Beevor |year=2006 |page=46 |title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84832-5 }}</ref> In response to the army rebellion, an [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[Collective farming|collectivised]] the land.<ref name='Bolloten 1984, p.54'>{{cite book | last = Bolloten | first = Burnett | authorlink = Burnett Bolloten | coauthors = | title = The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | date = 15 November 1984 | location = | page =1107 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-8078-1906-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Bolloten | first = Burnett | authorlink = Burnett Bolloten | coauthors = | title = The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | date = 15 November 1984 | location = | page =1107 | url = | doi = | isbn = 978-0-8078-1906-7 }}</ref> But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinism|Stalinists]], who controlled much of the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the [[Soviet Union]]. The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a workers' [[social revolution]] that began during the outbreak of the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist]] and more broadly [[libertarian socialist]] organisational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily [[Catalonia]], Aragon, [[Andalusia]], and parts of [[Levante, Spain|the Levante]]. Much of [[Spain's economy]] was put under worker control; in anarchist strongholds like [[Catalonia]], the figure was as high as 75%, but lower in areas with heavy [[Communist Party of Spain (main)|Communist Party of Spain]] influence, as the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-allied party actively resisted attempts at [[collectivization]] enactment. Factories were run through worker committees, [[agriculture|agrarian]] areas became collectivised and run as [[Libertarian socialism|libertarian]] [[commune (intentional community)|communes]]. Anarchist historian [[Sam Dolgoff]] estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution,<ref name=Dolgoff1974>{{Cite book | title = The Anarchist Collectives: Workers' Self-Management in the Spanish Revolution. In The Spanish Revolution, the Luger P08 was used as a weapon of choice by the Spanish | year = 1974 | author = Dolgoff, S. | isbn = 978-0-914156-03-1 | ref = harv | postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref> which he claimed "came closer to realizing the ideal of the free stateless society on a vast scale than any other revolution in history."<ref>Dolgoff (1974), p. 5</ref> [[Stalinist purges|Stalinist]]-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification|dissident Marxists]] and anarchists.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=1-57181-542-2 |page=29 |title=Sartre Against Stalinism |first=Ian |last=Birchall |year=2004 |publisher=Berghahn Books}}</ref> The prominent Italian anarchist [[Camillo Berneri]], who volunteered to fight against Franco was killed instead in Spain by gunmen associated with the [[Spanish Communist Party]].<ref>"When clashes with the Communist Party broke out, his house, where he lived with other anarchists, was attacked on 4 May 1937. They were all labelled "counter-revolutionaries", disarmed, deprived of their papers and forbidden to go out into the street. There was still shooting in the streets when, on 5 May 1937, news arrived from Italy of Antonio Gramsci's death in a fascist prison...Leaving Radio Barcelona, Berneri set off for the Plaça de la Generalitat, where some Stalinists shouted after him. Before he could turn and look, they opened fire with machine guns, and left his dead body there on the street."[http://libcom.org/history/berneri-luigi-camillo-1897-1937 "Berneri, Luigi Camillo, 1897–1937" at libcom.com]</ref><ref>[[Paul Avrich]]. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. AK Press. 2005. p. 516</ref><ref>"Spain: Return to "normalization" in Barcelona. The Republican government had sent troops to take over the telephone exchange on 3 May, pitting the anarchists & Poumists on one side against the Republican government & the Stalinist Communist Party on the other, in pitched street battles, resulting in 500 anarchists killed. Squads of Communist Party members took to the streets on 6 May to assassinate leading anarchists. Today, among those found murdered, was the Italian anarchist Camillo Berneri"[http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/BerneriCamillo.htm "Camillo Berneri" at The Anarchist Encyclopedia: A Gallery of Saints & Sinners ...]</ref> === Post-war years === [[File:Paul Goodman.jpg|thumb|[[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], influential American anarchist author of ''[[Growing Up Absurd|Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized Society]]'' among other works critical of contemporary societies.]] Anarchism sought to reorganise itself after the war and in this context the organisational debate between [[synthesis anarchism]] and [[platformism]] took importance once again especially in the [[Anarchism in Italy#Postwar years and today|anarchist movements of Italy]] and [[Anarchism in France#The Fourth Republic (1945–1958)|France]]. The [[Mexican Anarchist Federation]] was established in 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Centre united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District.<ref>[http://www.portaloaca.com/historia/historia-libertaria/1735-regeneracion-y-la-federacion-anarquista-mexicana-1952-1960-tesis.html "Regeneración y la Federación Anarquista Mexicana (1952–1960)" by Ulises Ortega Aguilar]</ref> In the early 1940s, the Antifascist International Solidarity and the Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merged into the large national organisation Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association).<ref>"The surviving sectors of the revolutionary anarchist movement of the 1920–1940 period, now working in the SIA and the FGAC, reinforced by those Cuban militants and Spanish anarchists fleeing now-fascist Spain, agreed at the beginning of the decade to hold an assembly with the purpose of regrouping the libertarian forces inside a single organization. The guarantees of the 1940 Constitution permitted them to legally create an organization of this type, and it was thus that they agreed to dissolve the two principal Cuban anarchist organizations, the SIA and FGAC, and create a new, unified group, the Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (ALC), a sizable organization with a membership in the thousands."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Frank_Fernandez__Cuban_Anarchism__The_History_of_A_Movement.html#toc8 ''Cuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement'' by Frank Fernandez]</ref> From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerged as part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but was repressed by the new Communist regime.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com">[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/ Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977) « Robert Graham's Anarchism Weblog<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 1945 in [[Anarchism in France|France]] the [[Fédération Anarchiste]] and the anarchosyndicalist trade union [[Confédération nationale du travail]] was established in the next year while the also [[Synthesist anarchism|synthesist]] [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana]] was founded in [[Anarchism in Italy|Italy]]. Korean anarchists formed the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> and in 1946 the [[Japanese Anarchist Federation]] was founded.<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/af/ace/japchap3.html THE ANARCHIST MOVEMENT IN JAPAN Anarchist Communist Editions § ACE Pamphlet No. 8]</ref> An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe was held in Paris in May 1948.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> After World War II, an appeal in the ''[[Fraye Arbeter Shtime]]'' detailing the plight of [[Anarchism in Germany|German anarchists]] and called for Americans to support them. By February 1946, the sending of aid parcels to anarchists in Germany was a large-scale operation. The Federation of Libertarian Socialists was founded in Germany in 1947 and [[Rudolf Rocker]] wrote for its organ, ''Die Freie Gesellschaft'', which survived until 1953.<ref>* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1177/002200947300800304 | last = Vallance | first = Margaret |date=July 1973 | title = Rudolf Rocker&nbsp;– a biographical sketch | journal = Journal of Contemporary History | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 94–95 | publisher = Sage Publications | location = London/Beverly Hills | issn = 0022-0094 | oclc = 49976309 | ref = harv }}</ref> In 1956 the [[Uruguayan Anarchist Federation]] was founded.<ref>[http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=3701 "50 años de la Federación Anarquista Uruguaya"]</ref> In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renamed itself as the [[Argentine Libertarian Federation]]. The [[Syndicalist Workers' Federation]] was a syndicalist group in active in post-war Britain,<ref name="Political Encyclopedia">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations'|year=2000|publisher=Pinter Publishers|location=United Kingdom|isbn=978-1855672642|url=http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-British-Irish-Political-Organizations/dp/1855672642}}</ref> and one of [[Solidarity Federation]]'s earliest predecessors. It was formed in 1950 by members of the dissolved Anarchist Federation of Britain.<ref name="Political Encyclopedia" /> Unlike the AFB, which was influenced by anarcho-syndicalist ideas but ultimately not syndicalist itself, the SWF decided to pursue a more definitely [[syndicalism|syndicalist]], worker-centred strategy from the outset.<ref name="Political Encyclopedia" /> Anarchism continued to influence important literary and intellectual personalities of the time, such as [[Albert Camus]], [[Herbert Read]], [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], [[Dwight Macdonald]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], [[George Woodcock]], [[Leopold Kohr]],<ref name="NYT-Obit">[http://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/28/obituaries/dr-leopold-kohr-84-backed-smaller-states.html Dr. Leopold Kohr, 84; Backed Smaller States], [[New York Times]] obituary, 28 February 1994.</ref><ref name="Sale-foreward">[http://www.ditext.com/kohr/foreword.html Kirkpatrick Sale, foreword to E.P. Dutton 1978 edition of Leopold Kohr's ''Breakdown of Nations.'']</ref> [[Julian Beck]], [[John Cage]]<ref name="cage">Cage self-identified as an anarchist in a 1985 interview: "I'm an anarchist. I don't know whether the adjective is pure and simple, or philosophical, or what, but I don't like government! And I don't like institutions! And I don't have any confidence in even good institutions." [http://www.ubu.com/papers/cage_montague_interview.html John Cage at Seventy: An Interview] by Stephen Montague. ''American Music'', Summer 1985. Ubu.com. Accessed 24 May 2007.</ref> and the French [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] group led by [[André Breton]], which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the [[Fédération Anarchiste]].<ref>"It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself," wrote André Breton in "The Black Mirror of Anarchism," Selection 23 in Robert Graham, ed., ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977)''[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/]. Breton had returned to France in 1947 and in April of that year Andre Julien welcomed his return in the pages of Le Libertaire the weekly paper of the [[Fédération Anarchiste|Federation Anarchiste]]"[http://libcom.org/history/1919-1950-the-politics-of-surrealism "1919–1950: The politics of Surrealism" by Nick Heath] on [[libcom.org]]</ref> [[Anarcho-pacifism]] became influential in the [[Anti-nuclear movement]] and [[anti war movement]]s of the time<ref>"In the forties and fifties, anarchism, in fact if not in name, began to reappear, often in alliance with pacifism, as the basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War.[http://robertgraham.wordpress.com/anarchism-a-documentary-history-of-libertarian-ideas-volume-two-the-emergence-of-the-new-anarchism-1939-1977/] The anarchist/pacifist wing of the peace movement was small in comparison with the wing of the movement that emphasized electoral work, but made an important contribution to the movement as a whole. Where the more conventional wing of the peace movement rejected militarism and war under all but the most dire circumstances, the anarchist/pacifist wing rejected these on principle."[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref><ref>"In the 1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded anarchists adding to the mixture their critique of the state, and tender-minded pacifists their critique of violence. Its first practical manifestation was at the level of method: nonviolent direct action, principled and pragmatic, was used widely in both the Civil Rights movement in the USA and the campaign against nuclear weapons in Britain and elsewhere."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Geoffrey_Ostergaard__Resisting_the_Nation_State._The_pacifist_and_anarchist_tradition.html#toc13 Geoffrey Ostergaard. ''Resisting the Nation State. The pacifist and anarchist tradition'']</ref> as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] [[Alex Comfort]] or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifists [[Ammon Hennacy]] and [[Dorothy Day]]. Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the [[Cold War]]."<ref>[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref> The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham's [[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]], ''Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977)''.<ref name="robertgraham.wordpress.com"/> ===Contemporary anarchism=== {{Main|Contemporary anarchism}} [[File:ParcGuellOkupas.jpg|thumb|left|The famous ''okupas'' [[squatting|squat]] near [[Park Güell|Parc Güell]], overlooking [[Barcelona]]. [[Squatting]] was a prominent part of the emergence of renewed anarchist movement from the [[counterculture]] of the 1960s and 1970s. On the roof: "Occupy and Resist"]] A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thomas|1985|page=4}}</ref> Anarchism was influential in the [[Counterculture of the 1960s]]<ref>[http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs "These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of 'official' anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade – and a spree of publishing activity.""Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network" by John Patten]</ref><ref>Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 1960s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade."[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SA/en/display/268 "The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell]</ref><ref>"While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science professor denounced what she saw as "[[The Tyranny of Structurelessness]]." Several groups have called themselves "Amazon Anarchists." After the [[Stonewall Rebellion]], the New York [[Gay Liberation Front]] based their organisation in part on a reading of [[Murray Bookchin]]'s anarchist writings." [http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Anarchism.pdf "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'']. p. 52</ref> and anarchists actively participated in the [[Protests of 1968|late sixties students and workers revolts]].<ref>"Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties&nbsp;... But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular&nbsp;... By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." [http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein]</ref> In 1968 in [[Carrara]], Italy the [[International of Anarchist Federations]] was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France (the [[Fédération anarchiste|Fédération Anarchiste]]), the [[Federazione Anarchica Italiana]] of Italy and the [[Iberian Anarchist Federation]] as well as the [[Bulgaria]]n federation in French exile.<ref>[http://www.iisg.nl/archives/en/files/l/10760196.php London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968] International Institute of Social History. Retrieved 19 January 2010</ref><ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/ifa-hist-short.html Short history of the IAF-IFA] A-infos news project. Retrieved 19 January 2010</ref> In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement, as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]].<ref>{{cite book | last = McLaughlin | first = Paul | title = Anarchism and Authority | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot | year = 2007 | isbn = 0-7546-6196-2 | page = 10}}</ref> The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and [[Squatting|squatter]] movements like that of [[Barcelona]], Spain. In Denmark, [[squatter]]s occupied a disused military base and declared the [[Freetown Christiania]], an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen. Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century,<ref name="revival">{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Leonard |date=September 2007 |title=Anarchism Revived |journal=New Political Science |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=297–312 |doi=10.1080/07393140701510160 |ref=harv }} </ref> a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of [[anarcha-feminism]], they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. Anarchist anthropologist [[David Graeber]] and anarchist historian [[Andrej Grubacic]] have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by [[Traditional knowledge|indigenous]], [[feminism|feminist]], ecological and [[counterculture|cultural-critical]] ideas", and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.<ref name="graeber">[[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]], "[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796 Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century]", [[ZNet]]. Retrieved 2007-12-13. or [http://www.punksinscience.org/kleanthes/courses/UK04S/WV/Graeber-Grubacic.pdf Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej(2004)Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century Retrieved 26 July 2010]</ref> Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and [[anti-globalisation movement]]s.<ref name=rupert>{{cite book | page=66 |last = Rupert | first = Mark | title = Globalization and International Political Economy | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-7425-2943-6 }}</ref> Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as ''[[black bloc]]s''; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include [[security culture]], [[affinity groups]] and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet.<ref name=rupert/> A significant event of this period was the confrontations at [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity|WTO conference in Seattle in 1999]].<ref name=rupert/> According to anarchist scholar [[Simon Critchley]], "contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary [[neo-liberalism]]&nbsp;... One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally."<ref>[[Simon Critchley#Infinitely Demanding|Infinitely Demanding]]'' by [[Simon Critchley]]. [[Verso Books|Verso]]. 2007. p. 125</ref> International anarchist federations in existence include the [[International of Anarchist Federations]], the [[International Workers' Association]], and [[International Libertarian Solidarity]]. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] (CGT) and the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. CGT membership was estimated at around 100,000 for 2003.<ref>Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004).</ref> Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the [[Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden]] and the [[Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation]]; the CNT-AIT in France;<ref>[http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html%20Website%20of%20the%20Confédération%20Nationale%20du%20Travail%20-%20Association%20Internationale%20des%20Travailleurs http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html Website of the Confédération Nationale du Travail – Association Internationale des Travailleurs]</ref> the [[Unione Sindacale Italiana|Union Sindicale Italiana]] in Italy; in the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]] and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]] and [[Anarchist Federation (Britain and Ireland)|Anarchist Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]], claiming 2,000 paying members, and the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active. ==Anarchist schools of thought== {{Main|Anarchist schools of thought}} [[File:Portrait of Pierre Joseph Proudhon 1865.jpg|thumb|Portrait of philosopher [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865) by [[Gustave Courbet]]. Proudhon was the primary proponent of anarchist [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], and influenced many later [[individualist anarchist]] and social anarchist thinkers.]] Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions, [[individualist anarchism]] and [[social anarchism]], which have some different origins, values and evolution.<ref name=slevin/><ref name="black dict" /><ref>[http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/archive/Anarchism Anarchism], [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1855069954 The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform] (1908).</ref> The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises [[negative liberty]], i.e. opposition to state or [[social control]] over the individual, while those in the social wing emphasise [[positive liberty]] to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement".<ref>Harrison, Kevin and Boyd, Tony. ''Understanding Political Ideas and Movements''. Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251.</ref> In a chronological and theoretical sense, there are classical – those created throughout the 19th century – and post-classical anarchist schools – those created since the mid-20th century and after. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is [[philosophical anarchism]], which embodies the theoretical stance that the [[state (polity)|state]] lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism<ref>Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12). Blackwell Publishing.</ref><ref>Wayne Gabardi, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0554%28198603%2980%3A1%3C300%3AA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 review] of ''Anarchism'' by David Miller, published in ''American Political Science Review'' Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar., 1986), pp. 300–02.</ref> philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a [[minarchism|minimal state]] as unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a [[moral obligation]] to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.<ref>Klosko, George. ''Political Obligations''. Oxford University Press 2005. p. 4.</ref> One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "[[anarchism without adjectives]]", a call for [[toleration]] first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''[[Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]]''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6.</ref> In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist– and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the [[anti-authoritarian]] beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought.<ref>Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135].</ref> ===Classical anarchist schools of thought=== ====Mutualism==== {{Main|Mutualism (economic theory)}} Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in France and others in the United States.<ref>"A member of a community," ''The Mutualist''; this 1826 series criticised [[Robert Owen]]'s proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; [[Shawn Wilburn|Wilbur, Shawn]], 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?".</ref> Proudhon proposed [[spontaneous order]], whereby organisation emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he wishes"<ref>Proudhon, ''Solution to the Social Problem'', ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p. 45.</ref> and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."<ref>{{cite book |last=Proudhon |first=Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon |title=The Principle of Federation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto |year=1979 |isbn=0-8020-5458-7 |quote=The notion of ''anarchy'' in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social order.}}</ref> It is important to recognize that Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance. For this reason, much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning ultimate spontaneous self-governance, Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary politics and allied himself not with Anarchist but Socialist factions of workers movements and, in addition to advocating state-protected charters for worker-owned cooperatives, promoted certain nationalization schemes during his life of public service. Mutualist anarchism is concerned with [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to the American mutualist [[William Batchelder Greene]], each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount."<ref>"Communism versus Mutualism", ''Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments''. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) [[William Batchelder Greene]]: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member."</ref> Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-691-04494-5, p. 6<br />''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 11.</ref> Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''What Is Property?'' Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.</ref> ====Individualist anarchism==== {{Main|Individualist anarchism}} {{Individualism sidebar}} Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the [[individual]] and their [[will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems.<ref name="ryner">"What do I mean by individualism? I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external determination, appeals only to the individual conscience."[http://www.marx.org/archive/ryner/1905/mini-manual.htm ''Mini-Manual of Individualism'' by Han Ryner]</ref><ref name="tucker">"I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in ''Individual Liberty''</ref> Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. In 1793, [[William Godwin]], who has often<ref name="Everhart, Robert B 1982. p. 115"/> been cited as the first anarchist, wrote ''[[Political Justice]]'', which some consider the first expression of anarchism.<ref name="godwinsep" /><ref name="Adams, Ian 2001. p. 116"/> Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a [[rationalist]] and [[utilitarian]] basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a [[Limited government|minimal state]] as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.<ref name="godwinsep">{{sep entry|godwin|William Godwin|Mark Philip|2006-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]] |last=Godwin |first=William |authorlink=William Godwin |year=1796 |publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson |oclc=2340417 |origyear=1793}}</ref> Godwin advocated [[individualism]], proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.<ref>''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9037183 Encyclopædia Britannica Online].</ref><ref name=pmcl119>Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119.</ref> [[File:Max stirner.jpg|left|thumb|[[19th century philosophy|19th-century philosopher]] [[Max Stirner]], usually considered a prominent early [[individualist anarchist]] (sketch by [[Friedrich Engels]]).]] An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism,"<ref name="Goodway, David 2006, p. 99">Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.</ref> or [[egoist anarchism]], was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German [[Max Stirner]].<ref name="SEP-Stirner">{{sep entry|max-stirner|Max Stirner|David Leopold|2006-08-04}}</ref> Stirner's ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.<ref name = "SEP-Stirner" /> According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176.</ref> without regard for God, state, or morality.<ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.</ref> To Stirner, rights were ''[[Reification (fallacy)|spooks]]'' in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality".<ref>"What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as ''I'' entitle, that is, empower myself to take&nbsp;..." In Ossar, Michael. 1980. ''Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller''. SUNY Press. p. 27.</ref> Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw [[union of egoists|unions of egoists]], non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,<ref name=nonserviam>{{Cite journal |url=http://i-studies.com/journal/n/pdf/nsi-17.pdf#page=13 |title=The union of egoists |journal=Non Serviam |volume=1 |first=Svein Olav |last=Nyberg |pages=13–14 |location=Oslo, Norway |publisher=Svein Olav Nyberg |oclc=47758413 |accessdate=1 September 2012 |ref=harv |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the [[state (polity)|state]].<ref name=karl>{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Paul | title = Karl Marx and the Anarchists | publisher = [[Routledge]]/[[Kegan Paul]] | location = London | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-7102-0685-2 |page=142}}</ref> Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.<ref name=carlson>{{cite book | last = Carlson | first = Andrew | title = Anarchism in Germany | publisher = Scarecrow Press | location = Metuchen | year = 1972 | isbn = 0-8108-0484-0 |chapterurl=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/carlson.html |chapter=Philosophical Egoism: German Antecedents|accessdate=4 December 2008}}</ref> "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and [[LGBT]] activist [[John Henry Mackay]]. [[Josiah Warren]] is widely regarded as the first American anarchist,<ref name=Slate>Palmer, Brian (29 December 2010) [http://www.slate.com/id/2279457/ What do anarchists want from us?], ''[[Slate.com]]''</ref> and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', was the first anarchist periodical published.<ref name="bailie20">William Bailie, [http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/warren/1stAmAnarch.pdf] ''Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist – A Sociological Study'', Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20</ref> For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent&nbsp;... that [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhonian]] Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of [[Josiah Warren]] and [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]]&nbsp;... [[William B. Greene]] presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form.".<ref name="againstallauthority.org">[http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html ''Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism'' by Eunice Minette Schuster]</ref> [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, [[Development criticism|development critic]], surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading [[transcendentalist]]. He is best known for his books ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay, ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'', an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later [[Benjamin Tucker]] fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]''. From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals,<ref name="bohemian individualism">[http://libcom.org/library/socanlifean2 "2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction" in Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism – An Unbridgeable Chasm] on [[libcom.org]]</ref> [[free love]] and [[birth control]] advocates (see [[Anarchism and issues related to love and sex]]),<ref name="freelove">[http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy]</ref><ref>[http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez]</ref> individualist [[Naturism|naturists]] [[Nudism|nudists]] (see [[anarcho-naturism]]),<ref>"Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A&nbsp;... Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se produjo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del ''pacto asociativo'' clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica) . Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de comenzar en el seno del movimiento"[http://almeralia.enlucha.info/bicicleta/bicicleta/ciclo/01/17.htm "El movimiento libertario en Italia" by ''Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS'' Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977]</ref><ref name="acracia.org">"Proliferarán así diversos grupos que practicarán el excursionismo, el naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el esperantismo, alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo. Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislación especial de la Dictadura potenciarán indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluirá el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de prácticas y tendencias. Uno de los grupos más destacados, que será el impulsor de la revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo Naturista Ecléctico, con sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la más destacada de las cuales será el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida."[http://www.acracia.org/1-23a58lainsumision.pdf "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez]</ref><ref name="aujourdhui">"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)."[http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html "Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak]</ref> [[freethought]] and [[Anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] activists<ref name="mises.org">[http://mises.org/journals/jls/5_3/5_3_4.pdf Wendy McElroy. "The culture of individualist anarchist in Late-nineteenth century America"]</ref><ref>[http://www.viruseditorial.net/pdf/anarquismo individualista.pdf Xavier Diez. ''El anarquismo individualista en España (1923–1939)'' Virus Editorial. 2007. p. 143]</ref> as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]]<ref name="The Illegalists">[http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm The "Illegalists"], by Doug Imrie (published by [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]])</ref><ref name="Parry, Richard 1987. p. 15">Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15</ref> (see [[European individualist anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism in France]]). These authors and activists included [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Emile Armand]], [[Han Ryner]], [[Henri Zisly]], [[Renzo Novatore]], [[Miguel Gimenez Igualada]], [[Adolf Brand]] and [[Lev Chernyi]] among others. ====Social anarchism==== {{Main|Social anarchism}} {{Libertarian socialism}} Social anarchism calls for a system with common ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organisations, without any government authority or [[coercion]]. It is the largest school of thought in anarchism.<ref>"This does not mean that the majority thread within the anarchist movement is uncritical of individualist anarchism. Far from it! Social anarchists have argued that this influence of non-anarchist ideas means that while its "criticism of the State is very searching, and [its] defence of the rights of the individual very powerful," like Spencer it "opens&nbsp;... the way for reconstituting under the heading of 'defence' all the functions of the State." [http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secGint.html Section G – Is individualist anarchism capitalistic?] ''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]''</ref> Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality (while retaining respect for [[personal property]]),<ref name="theanarchistlibrary.org">"The revolution abolishes private ownership of the means of production and distribution, and with it goes capitalistic business. Personal possession remains only in the things you use. Thus, your watch is your own, but the watch factory belongs to the people."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Alexander_Berkman__What_Is_Communist_Anarchism_.html [[Alexander Berkman]]. "[[Now and After|What Is Communist Anarchism?]]"]</ref> and emphasises cooperation and [[mutual aid (organization)|mutual aid]].<ref>[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.</ref> =====Collectivist anarchism===== {{Main|Collectivist anarchism}} Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of such,<ref>Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76.</ref><ref>Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261.</ref> is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Johann Most]].<ref name = "Patsouras-p54">Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54.</ref><ref>Avrich, Paul. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 5.</ref> Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or ''[[propaganda by the deed]]'', which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production.<ref name = "Patsouras-p54" /> However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by [[anarchist communists]] as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".<ref>{{cite book |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |title=The Conquest of Bread |publisher=AK Press |location=Edinburgh |year=2007 |chapter=13 |isbn=978-1-904859-10-9}}</ref> Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with [[Marxism]] but opposed the Marxist [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bakunin |first=Mikhail |title=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1990 |isbn=0-521-36182-6 |quote=They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship&nbsp;– their dictatorship, of course&nbsp;– can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.}}</ref> Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not [[mutually exclusive]]; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.<ref>{{cite web |authorlink=James Guillaume|last=Guillaume |first=James |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/ideas.htm |title=Ideas on Social Organization |year=1876}}</ref> =====Anarcho-communism===== {{Main|Anarcho-communism}} {{Anarcho-communism sidebar}} Anarchist communism (also known as anarcho-communism, libertarian communism<ref>"Anarchist communism is also known as anarcho-communism, communist anarchism, or, sometimes, libertarian communism."[http://libcom.org/thought/anarchist-communism-an-introduction "Anarchist communism – an introduction"] by [[Libcom.org]]</ref><ref>"The terms libertarian communism and anarchist communism thus became synonymous within the international anarchist movement as a result of the close connection they had in Spain (with libertarian communism becoming the prevalent term)."[http://www.fdca.it/fdcaen/historical/vault/ancom-libcom.htm "Anarchist Communism & Libertarian Communism" by Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze. from "L'informatore di parte", No. 4, October 1979, quarterly journal of the Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze], on [[libcom.org]]</ref><ref>"The 'Manifesto of Libertarian Communism' was written in 1953 by Georges Fontenis for the Federation Communiste Libertaire of France. It is one of the key texts of the anarchist-communist current." [http://libcom.org/library/manifesto-of-libertarian-communism-georges-fontenis "Manifesto of Libertarian Communism" by Georges Fontenis] on [[libcom.org]]</ref><ref>"In 1926 a group of exiled Russian anarchists in France, the Delo Truda (Workers' Cause) group, published this pamphlet. It arose not from some academic study but from their experiences in the 1917 Russian revolution." [http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/org_plat.htm "The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists" by Delo Truda]</ref> and occasionally as free communism) is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of the [[State (polity)|state]], [[markets]], money, [[private property]] (while retaining respect for [[personal property]]),<ref name="theanarchistlibrary.org"/> and capitalism in favour of [[common ownership]] of the [[means of production]],<ref name=Mayne>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=6MkTz6Rq7wUC&pg=PA131&dq=Communist+anarchism+belives+in+collective+ownership |title=From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms Alan James Mayne Published 1999 Greenwood Publishing Group 316 pages ISBN 0-275-96151-6 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010|isbn=978-0-275-96151-0|year=1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=jeiudz5sBV4C&pg=PA14&dq=Communist+anarchism+believes+in+common+ownership#PPA13,M1 |title=Anarchism for Know-It-Alls By Know-It-Alls For Know-It-Alls, For Know-It-Alls Published by Filiquarian Publishing, LLC., 2008 ISBN 1-59986-218-2, 9781599862187 72 pages |publisher=Books.google.com |date= January 2008|accessdate=20 September 2010|isbn=978-1-59986-218-7}}</ref> [[direct democracy]] and a horizontal network of [[voluntary association]]s and [[workers' council]]s with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "[[from each according to his ability, to each according to his need]]".<ref>Fabbri, Luigi. "Anarchism and Communism." Northeastern Anarchist #4. 1922. 13 October 2002. http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/worldwidemovements/fabbrianarandcom.html</ref><ref>Makhno, Mett, Arshinov, Valevski, Linski (Dielo Trouda). "The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists". 1926. Constructive Section: available here http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/constructive.htm</ref> [[File:Kropotkin2.jpg|thumb|right|Russian theorist [[Peter Kropotkin]] (1842–1921), who was influential in the development of [[anarchist communism]].]] Some forms of anarchist communism such as [[insurrectionary anarchism]] are strongly influenced by [[egoist anarchism|egoism]] and radical [[individualism]], believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.<ref name="bobblack">[[Post-left anarchy|Post-left]] anarcho-communist [[Bob Black]] after analysing [[Insurrectionary anarchism|insurrectionary]] anarcho-communist [[Luigi Galleani]]'s view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of [[individualism]]&nbsp;... The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both&nbsp;... Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of "emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual,"...&nbsp;You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a "method of individualization." It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Bob_Black__Nightmares_of_Reason.html#toc22 Bob Black. ''Nightmares of Reason''.]</ref><ref name="dwardmac.pitzer.edu">"Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved – and how enslaved!&nbsp;... Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand – that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/goldman/ME/mev2n3.html#142 [[Max Baginski]]. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" on ''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]''. Vol. 2. No. 3 May 1907]</ref><ref>Christopher Gray, ''Leaving the Twentieth Century'', p. 88.</ref><ref name="creativenothing">[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html "Towards the creative Nothing" by [[Renzo Novatore]]</ref> Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.<ref>"Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty – provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy&nbsp;... Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Communism_and_Anarchy.html "Communism and Anarchy" by [[Peter Kropotkin]]</ref><ref>This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Dielo_Truda__Workers__Cause___Organisational_Platform_of_the_Libertarian_Communists.html ''Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists'' by Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause)]</ref><ref>"I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle."[http://www.reocities.com/kk_abacus/vb/wd12persp.html "MY PERSPECTIVES" by Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12]</ref> Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution<ref name="Graham-2005">Robert Graham, ''Anarchism – A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas – Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'', Black Rose Books, 2005</ref><ref>[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__The_Great_French_Revolution_1789-1793.html#toc42 "Chapter 41: The "Anarchists"" in ''The Great French Revolution 1789–1793'' by Peter Kropotkin]</ref> but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the [[First International]].<ref name="Nunzio Pernicone pp. 111–13">Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864–1892", pp. 111–13, AK Press 2009.</ref> The theoretical work of [[Peter Kropotkin]] took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organisationalist and [[Insurrectionary anarchism|insurrectionary anti-organisationalist]] sections.<ref name=" Alain Pengam">[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Alain_Pengam__Anarchist-Communism.html "Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam]</ref> To date, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society (i.e., established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the [[Spanish Revolution]]<ref>"This process of education and class organization, more than any single factor in Spain, produced the collectives. And to the degree that the CNT-FAI (for the two organizations became fatally coupled after July 1936) exercised the major influence in an area, the collectives proved to be generally more durable, communist and resistant to Stalinist counterrevolution than other republican-held areas of Spain." [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Murray_Bookchin__To_Remember_Spain__The_Anarchist_and_Syndicalist_Revolution_of_1936.html [[Murray Bookchin]. ''To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936'']</ref> and the [[Free Territory]] during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]]. Through the efforts and influence of the [[Spanish Anarchists]] during the [[Spanish Revolution]] within the [[Spanish Civil War]], starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as in the stronghold of [[Anarchist Catalonia]] before being crushed by the combined forces of [[Francoism|the regime that won the war]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself.<ref>[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Murray_Bookchin__To_Remember_Spain__The_Anarchist_and_Syndicalist_Revolution_of_1936.html [[Murray Bookchin]. ''To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936'']</ref> During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as [[Nestor Makhno]] worked to create and defend – through the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] – anarchist communism in the [[Free Territory]] of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. =====Anarcho-syndicalism===== {{Main|Anarcho-syndicalism}} [[File:Manifestación CNT Bilbao.jpg|thumb|left|May day demonstration of Spanish [[anarcho-syndicalist]] trade union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] in [[Bilbao]], Basque Country in 2010]]Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that focuses on the [[trade union|labour movement]].<ref>Sorel, Georges. 'Political Theorists in Context' Routledge (2004) p. 248</ref> Anarcho-syndicalists view [[trade union|labour unions]] as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the [[State (polity)|state]] with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are: Workers' [[wikt:Solidarity|solidarity]], [[Direct action]] and [[Workers' self-management]] Anarcho-syndicalists believe that only [[direct action]] – that is, action concentrated on directly attaining a goal, as opposed to indirect action, such as electing a representative to a government position – will allow workers to liberate themselves.<ref>Rocker, Rudolf. 'Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice' AK Press (2004) p. 73</ref> Moreover, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organisations (the organisations that struggle against the wage system, which, in anarcho-syndicalist theory, will eventually form the basis of a new society) should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; rather, the workers should be able to make all the decisions that affect them themselves. [[Rudolf Rocker]] was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought, and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet ''Anarcho-Syndicalism''.The [[International Workers Association]] is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labour unions from different countries. The Spanish [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] played and still plays a major role in the Spanish [[labour movement]]. It was also an important force in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. ===Post-classical schools of thought=== [[File:Jarach and Zerzan.JPG|thumb|left|[[Lawrence Jarach]] (left) and [[John Zerzan]] (right), two prominent contemporary anarchist authors. Zerzan is known as prominent voice within [[anarcho-primitivism]], while Jarach is a noted advocate of [[post-left anarchy]].]] Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources, and [[Syncretic politics|syncretic]], combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches.<ref>Perlin, Terry M. ''[http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=mppLKlwHx7oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Contemporary+_+Anarchism&ei=vSDBSuXHMo2mM8mu-OsP#v=onepage&q=&f=false Contemporary Anarchism]''. Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ 1979</ref> [[Green anarchism]] (or eco-anarchism)<ref>David Pepper (1996). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=PQOvkB7UoWgC&pg=PA44&dq= Modern Environmentalism] p. 44. Routledge.</ref> is a school of thought within anarchism that emphasizes environmental issues,<ref>Ian Adams (2001). [http://books.google.com.ec/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA130&dq= Political Ideology Today] p. 130. Manchester University Press.</ref> with an important precedent in [[anarcho-naturism]],<ref name="acracia.org"/><ref>"Anarchism and the different Naturist views have always been related."[http://www.naturismo.org/adn/ediciones/2003/invierno/7e.html "Anarchism – Nudism, Naturism" by Carlos Ortega at Asociacion para el Desarrollo Naturista de la Comunidad de Madrid. Published on Revista ''ADN''. Winter 2003]</ref><ref name="naturismolibertario">[http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22 EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENÍNSULA IBÉRICA (1890–1939) by Jose Maria Rosello]</ref> and whose main contemporary currents are [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[social ecology]]. [[Anarcha-feminism]] (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines anarchism with [[feminism]]. It generally views [[patriarchy]] as a manifestation of involuntary [[Coercion|coercive]] hierarchy that should be replaced by [[decentralised]] [[Free association (communism and anarchism)|free association]]. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of [[class struggle]], and the anarchist struggle against the [[State (polity)|state]]. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice-versa. [[L. Susan Brown]] claims that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".<ref>Brown, p. 208.</ref> Anarcha-feminism began with the late 19th century writings of early feminist anarchists such as [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]]. [[Anarcho-pacifism]] is a tendency that rejects violence in the struggle for social change (see [[non-violence]]).<ref name="ppu.org.uk"/><ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> It developed "mostly in the [[Netherlands]], Britain, and the United States, before and during the Second World War".<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/> [[Christian anarchism]] is a [[Christian movement|movement]] in [[political theology]] that combines anarchism and Christianity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel |last=Christoyannopoulos |first=Alexandre |authorlink=Alexandre Christoyannopoulos |coauthors= |year=2010 |publisher=Imprint Academic |location=Exeter |isbn= |page= |pages=2–4 |url= |accessdate=|quote=Locating Christian anarchism&nbsp;... In political theology}}</ref> Its main proponents included [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Dorothy Day]], [[Ammon Hennacy]], and [[Jacques Ellul]]. [[Platformism]] is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement based on the organisational theories in the tradition of [[Dielo Truda]]'s ''Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)''.<ref name=Platformtext>{{cite book |last=Dielo Trouda group |authorlink=Dielo Trouda |title=Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) |origyear=1926 |url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 |accessdate=24 October 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=FdCA |location=Italy| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070311013533/http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000| archivedate= 11 March 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> The document was based on the experiences of [[Anarchism in Russia|Russian anarchists]] in the 1917 [[October Revolution]], which led eventually to the victory of the [[Bolsheviks]] over the anarchists and other groups. The ''Platform'' attempted to address and explain the anarchist movement's failures during the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]]. {{Green anarchism |Related}} [[Synthesis anarchism]] is a form of anarchism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of [[anarchism without adjectives]].<ref name="infoshop.org">[http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 "J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?" in [[An Anarchist FAQ]]</ref> In the 1920s, this form found as its main proponents the [[anarcho-communists]] [[Voline]] and [[Sébastien Faure]].<ref name="infoshop.org"/><ref>"The remedy has been found: libertarian communism."[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Sebastien_Faure__Libertarian_Communism.html [[Sébastien Faure]. "Libertarian Communism"]</ref> It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global [[International of Anarchist Federations]].<ref>"Most national sections of the International Anarchist Federation (IFA) are good examples of successful federations which are heavily influenced by "synthesis" ideas (such as the French and Italian federations)."[http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionJ3 "J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?" in [[An Anarchist FAQ]]</ref> [[Post-left anarchy]] is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism's relationship to traditional [[Left-wing politics]]. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general also presenting a critique of organisations and [[morality]].<ref name="ideology">[http://www.insurgentdesire.org.uk/postleft.htm "Post-Left Anarchy: Leaving the Left Behind Prologue to Post-Left Anarchy"] by [[Jason McQuinn]]</ref> Influenced by the work of [[Max Stirner]]<ref name="ideology"/> and by the Marxist [[Situationist International]],<ref name="ideology"/> post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social [[insurrectionary anarchism|insurrection]] and a rejection of leftist social organisation.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Introduction |last=Macphee |first=Josh |title=Realizing the Impossible |publisher=AK Press |location=Stirling |year=2007 |isbn=1-904859-32-1 }}</ref> [[Insurrectionary anarchism]] is a revolutionary theory, practice, and tendency within the anarchist movement which emphasizes [[insurrection]] within anarchist practice.<ref name="sasha">[http://www.insurgentdesire.org.uk/notes.htm "Some Notes on Insurrectionary Anarchism" from Venomous Butterfly and Willful Disobedience]</ref><ref name="joeblack">{{cite web |url=http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html |title="Anarchism, insurrections and insurrectionalism" by Joe Black |publisher=Ainfos.ca |date=19 July 2006 |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101206162459/http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html| archivedate= 6 December 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> It is critical of formal organisations such as [[labour unions]] and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses.<ref name="sasha"/> Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organisation and small [[affinity group]] based organisation.<ref name="sasha"/><ref name="joeblack"/> Insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack, permanent [[class conflict]], and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies.<ref name="sasha"/><ref name="joeblack"/> [[Post-anarchism]] is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought, drawing from diverse ideas including [[post-modernism]], [[autonomist marxism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[Situationist International]], and [[postcolonialism]]. [[Anarcho-capitalism]] advocates the elimination of the [[state (polity)|state]] in favour of [[sovereign individual|individual sovereignty]] in a [[free market]].<ref>[[Ronald Hamowy|Hamowy, Ronald]] (editor). ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism,'' SAGE, 2008, [http://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT50&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=guxiTNrmIMP7lweDmPC1Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20libertarian&f=false pp. 10–12], [http://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT50&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=guxiTNrmIMP7lweDmPC1Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=radical%20%20libertarian&f=false p 195], ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4, ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4</ref><ref name=Stringham51>Edward Stringham, ''Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice,'' [http://books.google.com/books?id=nft4e62nicsC&pg=PA51&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&hl=en&ei=R9JiTMCQOYH6lwfGw-SICg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20libertarian&f=false p 51]</ref> Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-state [[libertarianism]] and [[individualist anarchism]],<ref name=Tormey>Tormey, Simon. ''Anti-Capitalism'', One World, 2004.</ref><ref name=Perlin>Perlin, Terry M. ''Contemporary Anarchism'', Transaction Books, NJ 1979.</ref><ref name=Raico>Raico, Ralph. ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century'', Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS, 2004.</ref><ref name=Heider>Heider, Ulrike. ''Anarchism:Left, Right, and Green'', City Lights, 1994. p. 3.</ref><ref name=Outhwaite>Outhwaite, William. ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought'', ''Anarchism'' entry, p. 21, 2002.</ref><ref name=Bottomore>Bottomore, Tom. '' Dictionary of Marxist Thought'', ''Anarchism'' entry, 1991.</ref><ref name=Ostergaard>Ostergaard, Geofrey. Resisting the Nation State – the anarchist and pacifist tradition, Anarchism As A Tradition of Political Thought. Peace Pledge Union Publications [http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad6.html]</ref> drawing from [[Austrian School]] economics, study of [[law and economics]], and [[public choice theory]].<ref>Edward Stringham, [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=53&articleID=686 ''Anarchy, State, and Public Choice''], Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.</ref> There is a strong current within anarchism which does not consider that anarcho-capitalism can be considered a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an [[anti-capitalist]] movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism incompatible with capitalist forms.<ref>"The philosophy of “anarcho-capitalism” dreamed up by the “libertarian” [[New Right]], has nothing to do with Anarchism as known by the Anarchist movement proper."[[Albert Meltzer|Meltzer, Albert]]. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CJhCvx_Z0CAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Anarchism:+Arguments+For+and+Against&ei=GHi-StvuEo6MNfKjyZMD&hl=es#v=onepage&q=&f=false Anarchism: Arguments For and Against]'' [[AK Press]], (2000) p.&nbsp;50</ref><ref>"In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called [[Right-libertarianism|right-wing libertarians]] rather than anarchists." Peter Marshall. Demanding the impossible: A history of anarchism. Harper Perennial. London. 2008. p. 565</ref><ref>"It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of [[Right-libertarianism|right-wing libertarianism]] which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)."[[Saul Newman]], ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43&dq=anarcho-capitalism+right+libertarian&hl=en&ei=TxeYTKOLFYH-8Aaa77WlAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAjge#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20right%20libertarian&f=false The Politics of Postanarchism, Edinburgh University Press,]'' 2010, p. 43 ISBN 0748634959</ref><ref>[http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secFcon.html Section F – Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism?] at [[An Anarchist FAQ]] published in physical book form by An Anarchist FAQ as "Volume I"; by [[AK Press]], Oakland/Edinburgh 2008; 558 pages, ISBN 9781902593906</ref><ref>"‘Libertarian’ and ‘libertarianism’ are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for ‘anarchist’ and ‘anarchism’, largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of ‘anarchy’ and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, ‘minimal statism’ and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words ‘libertarian’ and ‘libertarianism’. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their [[right libertarianism]] and the [[left libertarianism]] of the anarchist tradition." ''Anarchist seeds beneath the snow: left libertarian thought and british writers from William Morris to Colin Ward'' by David Goodway. Liverpool University Press. Liverpool. 2006. p. 4</ref><ref>"Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard’s claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist venders...so what remains is shrill anti-statism conjoined to a vacuous freedom in hackneyed defense of capitalism. In sum, the “anarchy” of Libertarianism reduces to a liberal fraud.[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy" by Peter Sabatini] in issue #41 (Fall/Winter 1994–95) of ''[[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]]''</ref> <!-- If you are looking to extend this section, please add the content to the proper sub-article [[anarchist schools of thought]] instead. -->{{-}} ==Internal issues and debates== {{See also|Anarchism and violence|Anarchist schools of thought|Issues in anarchism}} [[File:Gadewar.jpg|thumb|Which forms of violence (if any) are [[anarchism and violence|consistent with anarchist values]] is a controversial subject among anarchists.]]<!-- In the interest of restricting article length, please limit this section to two or three short paragraphs and add any substantial information to the main Issues in anarchism article. Thank you. --> Anarchism is a [[philosophy]] that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of [[anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]],<ref name=oxcom>"Anarchism." ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 31.</ref> [[anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]], and [[anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]], [[Issues in anarchism#Communism|communism]] and [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[Christian anarchism|divine authority]], [[enlightened self-interest]], [[veganarchism|veganism]] or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as [[civilization]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[anarcho-primitivism]] and [[insurrectionary anarchism]]), and [[Issues in anarchism#Participation in statist democracy|the democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. On a tactical level, while [[propaganda of the deed]] was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the [[Nihilist movement]]), some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative [[direct action]] methods such as [[nonviolence]], [[counter-economics]] and [[Crypto-anarchism|anti-state cryptography]] to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones.<ref>Ted Honderich, Carmen García Trevijano, [http://books.google.es/books?id=s9iwZGv44psC&pg=PA402&dq=Enciclopedia+teor%C3%ADa+pol%C3%ADtica&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA57,M1 ''Oxford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy''].</ref> The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]].{{-}} ==Topics of interest== Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory. ===Free love=== {{Main|Free love|Anarchism and issues related to love and sex|Anarcha-feminism|Queer anarchism}} [[File:Emilearmand01.jpg|thumb|300px|French [[individualist anarchist]] [[Emile Armand]] (1872–1962), who propounded the virtues of free love in the Parisian anarchist milieu of the early 20th century]] An important current within anarchism is [[free love]].<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html |title=The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy |publisher=Ncc-1776.org |date=1 December 1996 |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101231195631/http://ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html| archivedate= 31 December 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to [[Josiah Warren]] and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly stressed [[women's rights]] since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.<ref name="freelove"/> The most important American free love journal was ''[[Lucifer the Lightbearer]]'' (1883–1907) edited by [[Moses Harman]] and [[Lois Waisbrooker]],<ref>Joanne E. Passet, "Power through Print: Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism," in: ''Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'', James Philip Danky and Wayne A. Wiegand, eds., Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006; pp. 229–50.</ref> but also there existed [[Ezra Heywood]] and Angela Heywood's ''[[The Word (free love)|The Word]]'' (1872–1890, 1892–1893).<ref name="freelove"/> ''[[Free Society]]'' (1895–1897 as ''The Firebrand''; 1897–1904 as ''Free Society'') was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.<ref name="Goldman-MSF-551">"''Free Society'' was the principal English-language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century." ''Emma Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902–1909'', p. 551.</ref> The publication advocated [[free love]] and [[women's rights]], and critiqued "[[Comstockery]]" – censorship of sexual information. Also [[M. E. Lazarus]] was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.<ref name="freelove"/> In New York City's [[Greenwich Village]], [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] feminists and socialists advocated self-realisation and pleasure for women (and also men) in the here and now. They encouraged playing with sexual roles and sexuality,<ref>Sochen, June. 1972. ''The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village 1910–1920.'' New York: Quadrangle.</ref> and the openly bisexual radical [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] and the lesbian anarchist [[Margaret Anderson]] were prominent among them. Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by [[Emma Goldman]], among others. Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman "has campaigned boldly and steadfastly for individual rights, and especially for those deprived of their rights. Thus it came about that she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public."<ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned. ''Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A.'' (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976)</ref> In fact, before Goldman, [[heterosexual]] anarchist Robert Reitzel (1849–1898) spoke positively of homosexuality from the beginning of the 1890s in his Detroit-based German language journal ''Der arme Teufel''. In Argentina anarcha-feminist [[Virginia Bolten]] published the newspaper called ''{{lang|es|La Voz de la Mujer}}'' ({{lang-en|The Woman's Voice}}), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897, and was revived, briefly, in 1901.<ref name="molyneux">{{cite book |last=Molyneux|first=Maxine|title=Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America and beyond|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2001|page=24|isbn=978-0-333-78677-2|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yg9HFrOG89kC&pg=PA24}}</ref> In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was [[Emile Armand]].<ref name="armandfreelove">{{cite web |url=http://www.iisg.nl/womhist/manfreuk.pdf |title=E. Armand and "la camaraderie amoureuse" – Revolutionary sexualism and the struggle against jealousy |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> He proposed the concept of ''la camaraderie amoureuse'' to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of [[polyamory]].<ref name="armandfreelove"/> In Germany the [[stirner]]ists [[Adolf Brand]] and [[John Henry Mackay]] were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male [[bisexuality]] and [[homosexuality]]. [[Mujeres Libres]] was an anarchist women's organisation in Spain that aimed to empower working class women. It was founded in 1936 by [[Lucía Sánchez Saornil]], Mercedes Comaposada and [[Amparo Poch y Gascón]] and had approximately 30,000 members. The organisation was based on the idea of a "double struggle" for [[Feminist movement|women's liberation]] and [[social revolution]] and argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel. In order to gain mutual support, they created networks of women anarchists.<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/ws98/ws54_mujeres_libres.html Mujeres Libres – Women anarchists in the Spanish Revolution<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Lucía Sánchez Saornil]] was a main founder of the Spanish [[anarcha-feminist]] federation [[Mujeres Libres]] who was open about her [[lesbian]]ism.<ref>[http://wzar.unizar.es/siem/articulos/Premios/MujeresLibres.pdf "basta pensar en el lesbianismo de Lucía Sánchez Saornil"]</ref> She was published in a variety of literary journals where working under a male pen name, she was able to explore [[lesbian]] themes<ref>"R. Fue una época transgresora, emergió el feminismo y la libertad sexual estuvo en el candelero. Hay rastreos de muchas lesbianas escritoras: Carmen Conde[primera académica de número], Victorina Durán, Margarita Xirgu, Ana María Sagi, la periodista Irene Polo, Lucía Sánchez Saornil, fundadora de Mujeres Libres[sección feminista de CNT]... Incluso existía un círculo sáfico en Madrid como lugar de encuentro y tertulia.P. ¿Se declaraban lesbianas?R. Había quien no se escondía mucho, como Polo o Durán, pero lesbiana era un insulto, algo innombrable. Excepto los poemas homosexuales de Sánchez Saornil, sus textos no eran explícitos para poder publicarlos, así que hay que reinterpretarlos."[http://elpais.com/diario/2007/12/06/paisvasco/1196973608_850215.html "Tener referentes serios de lesbianas elimina estereotipos" by Juan Fernandez at ''El Pais'']</ref> at a time when homosexuality was criminalized and subject to [[censorship]] and punishment. More recently, the British [[anarcho-pacifist]] [[Alex Comfort]] gained notoriety during the [[sexual revolution]] for writing the bestseller sex manual ''[[The Joy of Sex]]''. The issue of [[free love]] has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-[[hedonist]] philosopher [[Michel Onfray]] in such works as ''Théorie du corps amoureux : pour une érotique solaire'' (2000) and ''L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques'' (2002). ===Libertarian education and freethought=== {{See also|Anarchism and education|Freethought}} [[File:Fransisco Ferrer Guardia.jpg|left|thumb|[[Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia]], [[Catalan people|Catalan]] anarchist pedagogue and [[Freethought|free-thinker]]]] For English anarchist [[William Godwin]] education was "the main means by which change would be achieved."<ref name="GroupedRef1">[http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-good.htm "william godwin and informal education" by infed]</ref> Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness.<ref name="GroupedRef1" /> For Godwin education had to have "A respect for the child's autonomy which precluded any form of coercion," "A pedagogy that respected this and sought to build on the child's own motivation and initiatives," and "A concern about the child's capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school."<ref name="GroupedRef1" /> In his ''[[Political Justice]]'' he criticises state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with national government".<ref name="Enquiry Concerning Political Justice">{{Cite book |chapterurl=http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/godwin/pj6.htm |at=Book 4: Of Opinion Considered as a Subject of Political Institution |chapter=1: General Effects of the Political Superintendence of Opinion |title=Enquiry Concerning Political Justice |first=William |last=Godwin |edition=1st |id={{OCLC|680251053|642217608|504755839}} |publisher=G.G.J. and J. Robinson |location=London, England |year=1793 |ref=harv |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Early American anarchist [[Josiah Warren]] advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established.<ref>"Where utopian projectors starting with [[Plato]] entertained the idea of creating an ideal species through eugenics and education and a set of universally valid institutions inculcating shared identities, Warren wanted to dissolve such identities in a solution of individual self-sovereignty. His educational experiments, for example, possibly under the influence of the Swiss educational theorist [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] (via [[Robert Owen|Owen]]), emphasized – as we would expect – the nurturing of the independence and the conscience of individual children, not the inculcation of pre-conceived values.[http://www.crispinsartwell.com/warrenintrocurrent.htm "Introduction of The Practical Anarchist: Writings of Josiah Warren" by Crispin Sartwell]</ref> [[Max Stirner]] wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called ''[[The False Principle of our Education]]''. In it Stirner names his educational principle "personalist," explaining that self-understanding consists in hourly self-creation. Education for him is to create "free men, sovereign characters," by which he means "eternal characters&nbsp;... who are therefore eternal because they form themselves each moment".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/falseprinciple.html |title=The False Principle of our Education|author=Max Stirner |publisher=Tmh.floonet.net |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> In the United States "freethought was a basically [[Anti-Christianity|anti-christian]], [[anti-clerical]] movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]'' (anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of ''Freethought'' and, for a time, ''The Truth Seeker''. E.C. Walker was co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal ''[[Lucifer, the Light-Bearer]]''".<ref name="mises.org"/> "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as ''[[Lucifer, the Light-Bearer]]'', ''Freethought'' and ''The Truth Seeker'' appeared in ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]''...&nbsp;The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".<ref name="mises.org"/> In 1901, Catalan anarchist and [[Freethought|free-thinker]] [[Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia]] established "modern" or [[Progressive education|progressive schools]] in [[Barcelona]] in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church.<ref name="Fidler">{{cite journal |author=Geoffrey C. Fidler |date=Spring–Summer 1985 |title=The Escuela Moderna Movement of Francisco Ferrer: "Por la Verdad y la Justicia" |journal=History of Education Quarterly |volume=25 |issue=1/2 |pages=103–132 |doi=10.2307/368893 |jstor=368893 |publisher=History of Education Society |ref=harv}}</ref> The schools' stated goal was to "[[Popular education|educate the working class]] in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free from the authority of church and state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html |title=Francisco Ferrer's Modern School |publisher=Flag.blackened.net |date= |accessdate=20 September 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100807032003/http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/spain/ferrer.html| archivedate= 7 August 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> [[Murray Bookchin]] wrote: "This period [1890s] was the heyday of libertarian schools and pedagogical projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists exercised some degree of influence. Perhaps the best-known effort in this field was Francisco Ferrer's Modern School (Escuela Moderna), a project which exercised a considerable influence on Catalan education and on experimental techniques of teaching generally."<ref>Chapter 7, ''[[anarcho-syndicalism|Anarchosyndicalism]], The New Ferment''. In Murray Bookchin, ''The Spanish anarchists: the heroic years, 1868–1936''. AK Press, 1998, p. 115. ISBN 1-873176-04-X</ref> La Escuela Moderna, and Ferrer's ideas generally, formed the inspiration for a series of ''[[Modern School (United States)|Modern Schools]]'' in the United States,<ref name="Fidler"/> [[Cuba]], South America and London. The first of these was started in New York City in 1911. It also inspired the Italian newspaper ''[[Università popolare (Italian newspaper)|Università popolare]]'', founded in 1901. Russian [[christian anarchist]] [[Leo Tolstoy]] established a school for peasant children on his estate.<ref name="GroupedRef2">[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Matt_Hern__The_Emergence_of_Compulsory_Schooling_and_Anarchist_Resistance.html "The Emergence of Compulsory Schooling and Anarchist Resistance" by Matt Hern]</ref> Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wilson | first = A.N. | title = Tolstoy | publisher = Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. | year = 2001 | page = xxi | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=imYmH8myBUsC&pg=PR19 | isbn = 0-393-32122-3 }}</ref> Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture.<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> He thought that "Education is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself&nbsp;... Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary".<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> For him "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".<ref name="GroupedRef2" /> A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of [[unschooling]] and the [[anarchist free school|free school]] in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to [[A. S. Neill]] founding what became [[Summerhill School]] in 1921.<ref>{{cite book | last = Purkis | first = Jon | title = Changing Anarchism | publisher = Manchester University Press | location = Manchester | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-7190-6694-8 }}</ref> Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice.<ref>British anarchists [[Stuart Christie]] and [[Albert Meltzer]] manifested that "A.S. Neill is the modern pioneer of libertarian education and of "hearts not heads in the school". Though he has denied being an anarchist, it would be hard to know how else to describe his philosophy, though he is correct in recognising the difference between revolution in philosophy and pedagogy, and the revolutionary change of society. They are associated but not the same thing." [[Stuart Christie]] and [[Albert Meltzer]]. [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/stuart-christie-albert-meltzer-the-floodgates-of-anarchy ''The Floodgates of Anarchy'']</ref><ref>Andrew Vincent (2010) ''Modern Political Ideologies'', 3rd edition, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell p. 129</ref> However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political [[class struggle]]-approach.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Judith |last=Suissa |url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/1288/anarchy-in-the-classroom|title= Anarchy in the classroom |journal=[[The New Humanist]] |volume=120 |issue=5 |date=September–October 2005 |ref=harv}}</ref> In addition to organising schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term [[deschooling]] was popularised by [[Ivan Illich]], who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.<ref>{{cite book |last=Illich| first=Ivan |title=Deschooling Society |place= New York|publisher= Harper and Row| year= 1971| isbn= 0-06-012139-4}}</ref> == Criticisms == {{Main|Criticisms of anarchism}} Criticisms of anarchism include [[morality|moral]] criticisms and pragmatic criticisms. Anarchism is often evaluated as unfeasible or [[utopian]] by its critics. European history professor Carl Landauer, in his book ''European Socialism'' argued that social anarchism is unrealistic and that government is a "lesser evil" than a society without "repressive force." He also argued that "ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears" is an "absurdity."<ref>Landauer, Carl. ''European Socialism: A History of Ideas and Movements'' (1959)</ref> ==See also== * [[Anarchist economics]] * [[Anarchist symbolism]] * [[Libertarianism]] * [[Lists of anarchism topics]] * [[List of anarchist communities]] * [[List of anarchist movements by region]] * [[List of films dealing with Anarchism]] * [[Outline of anarchism]] * {{Lookfrom|Anarch}} {{Portal bar|Anarchism|Social and political philosophy|Social movements}} == References == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Further reading== * [[Harold Barclay|Barclay, Harold]], ''People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy'' (2nd ed.), Left Bank Books, 1990 ISBN 1-871082-16-1 * Blumenfeld, Jacob; Bottici, Chiara; [[Simon Critchley|Critchley, Simon]], eds., ''The Anarchist Turn'', Pluto Press. 19 March 2013. ISBN 9780745333427 * [[April Carter|Carter, April]], ''The Political Theory of Anarchism'', Harper & Row. 1971. ISBN 978-0-06-136050-3 * Gordon, Uri, ''Anarchy Alive!'', London: [[Pluto Press]], 2007. * Graham, Robert, ed., ''[[Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]]''. ** ''Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'', [[Black Rose Books]], Montréal and London 2005. ISBN 1-55164-250-6. ** ''Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006)'', Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 978-1-55164-311-3. * [[Daniel Guerin|Guerin, Daniel]], [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Daniel_Guerin__Anarchism__From_Theory_to_Practice.html ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''], Monthly Review Press. 1970. ISBN 0-85345-175-3 * [[Clifford Harper|Harper, Clifford]], ''Anarchy: A Graphic Guide'', (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork. * McKay, Iain, ed., ''[[An Anarchist FAQ]]''. ** ''Volume I'', [[AK Press]], Oakland/Edinburgh 2008; 558 pages, ISBN 978-1-902593-90-6. ** ''Volume II'', AK Press, Oakland/Edinburgh 2012; 550 Pages, ISBN 978-1-84935-122-5 * McLaughlin, Paul, ''Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism'', AshGate. 2007. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2 * [[Max Nettlau|Nettlau, Max]], ''Anarchy through the times'', Gordon Press. 1979. ISBN 0-8490-1397-6 * {{cite book |author=Sartwell, Crispin|title=Against the state: an introduction to anarchist political theory|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7914-7447-1|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C}} * [[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]], ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (Penguin Books, 1962). ISBN 0-14-022697-4. {{oclc|221147531}}. * Woodcock, George, ed., ''The Anarchist Reader'' (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0-00-634011-3): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], [[Errico Malatesta|Malatesta]], [[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin]], [[Emma Goldman|Goldman]], and many others. * Woodcock, George, ed., ''Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism'', PM Press. 2010. ISBN 1-60486-064-2 ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=no|n=no|v=no}} * [http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/index.html "An Anarchist FAQ Webpage"]&nbsp;–[[An Anarchist FAQ]] * {{In Our Time|Anarchism|p0038x9t|Anarchism}} * [http://www.ditext.com/anarchism/ Anarchism: A Bibliography] * [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm Anarchist Theory FAQ]&nbsp;–by [[Bryan Caplan]] * [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives]&nbsp;– information relating to famous anarchists including their writings (see [[Anarchy Archives]]). * [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]&nbsp;–700+ entries, with short biographies, links and dedicated pages * [http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/ KateSharpleyLibrary.net]&nbsp;–website of the [[Kate Sharpley Library]], containing many historical documents pertaining to anarchism * [http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org] – an online collection of news and information about anarchism. * [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/ The Anarchist Library] large online library with texts from anarchist authors * [http://www.theyliewedie.org/ressources/biblio/index-en.php They Lie We Die]&nbsp;–anarchist virtual library containing 768 books, booklets and texts *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/014.html Anarchism Collection at the Library of Congress] <!-- Attention! 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An open pantry contains many more cans. | Caption = Repetitively stacking or lining up objects is a behavior sometimes associated with individuals with autism. | DiseasesDB = 1142 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|84|0|f|80}} | ICD9 = 299.00 | ICDO = | OMIM = 209850 | MedlinePlus = 001526 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 3202 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|ped|180}} | MeshID = D001321 | GeneReviewsNBK = NBK1442 | GeneReviewsName = Autism overview }} '''Autism''' is a [[Neurodevelopmental disorder|disorder of neural development]] characterized by impaired [[Interpersonal relationship|social interaction]] and [[verbal communication|verbal]] and [[non-verbal communication]], and by restricted, repetitive or [[stereotypy|stereotyped]] behavior. The diagnostic criteria require that symptoms become apparent before a child is three years old.<ref name=DSM-IV-TR-299.00>{{vcite book |author=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV |chapter=Diagnostic criteria for 299.00 Autistic Disorder |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |edition=4 |location=Washington, DC |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-89042-025-4 |oclc=768475353 |url=http://cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |accessdate=}}</ref> Autism affects information processing in the [[Human brain|brain]] by altering how nerve cells and their [[synapse]]s connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood.<ref name=Levy/> It is one of three recognized disorders in the [[autism spectrum]] (ASDs), the other two being [[Asperger syndrome]], which lacks delays in cognitive development and language, and [[PDD-NOS|pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified]] (commonly abbreviated as PDD-NOS), which is diagnosed when the full set of criteria for autism or Asperger syndrome are not met.<ref name=Johnson/> Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare [[mutation]]s, or by rare combinations of common genetic variants.<ref name=Abrahams/> In rare cases, autism is strongly associated with [[Teratology|agents that cause birth defects]].<ref name=Arndt/> [[Controversies in autism|Controversies]] surround other proposed environmental [[Causes of autism|causes]], such as [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]], [[pesticide]]s or childhood [[vaccine]]s;<ref name=Rutter/> the vaccine hypotheses are biologically implausible and lack convincing scientific evidence.<ref name=GerberOffit2009>{{vcite journal |author= Gerber JS, Offit PA |title= Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal= Clin Infect Dis |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=456–61 |year=2009 |pmid=19128068 |pmc= 2908388 |doi=10.1086/596476 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full}}</ref> The [[prevalence]] of autism is about 1–2 per 1,000 people worldwide, and it occurs about four times more often in boys than girls.<ref name=Newschaffer/> The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) report 20 per 1,000 children in the United States are diagnosed with ASD {{as of|2012|lc=y}}, up from 11 per 1,000 in 2008.<ref name=MMWR2012>{{vcite journal |title=Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders&nbsp;— autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 14 sites, United States, 2008 |journal=MMWR Surveill Summ |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=1–19 |year=2012 |month=March |pmid=22456193|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm}}</ref><ref name='NHSR65'>{{vcite journal|author=Stephen J. Blumberg, Ph.D., et al.|title=Changes in Prevalence of Parent-reported Autism Spectrum Disorder in School-aged U.S. Children: 2007 to 2011–2012|journal=National Health Statistics Reports|issue=65|date=March 2013|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr065.pdf}}</ref> The number of people diagnosed with autism has been increasing dramatically since the 1980s, partly due to changes in diagnostic practice and government-subsidized financial incentives for named diagnoses;<ref name=NHSR65 /> the question of whether actual prevalence has increased is unresolved.<ref name=Newschaffer/> Parents usually notice signs in the first two years of their child's life.<ref name=CCD/> The signs usually develop gradually, but some autistic children first develop more normally and then [[Regressive autism|regress]].<ref name=Stefanatos/> [[Early intensive behavior intervention|Early behavioral]], cognitive, or speech interventions can help autistic children gain self-care, social, and communication skills.<ref name=CCD/> Although there is no known cure,<ref name=CCD/> there have been reported cases of children who recovered.<ref name=Helt/> Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some become successful.<ref name=Howlin/> An [[Sociological and cultural aspects of autism|autistic culture]] has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be [[Autism rights movement|accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder]].<ref name=Silverman/> ==Characteristics== Autism is a highly variable [[neurodevelopmental disorder]]<ref name=Geschwind/> that first appears during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without [[Remission (medicine)|remission]].<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0/> Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years,<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Rogers SJ |title=What are infant siblings teaching us about autism in infancy? |title.= |journal=Autism Res |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=125–37 |year=2009 |pmid=19582867 |doi=10.1002/aur.81 |pmc=2791538 }}</ref> and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form.<ref name=Rapin/> It is distinguished not by a single symptom, but by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction; impairments in communication; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis.<ref name=Filipek/> Autism's individual symptoms occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.<ref name=London/> ===Social development=== Social deficits distinguish autism and the related [[autism spectrum disorder]]s (ASD; see [[#Classification|Classification]]) from other developmental disorders.<ref name=Rapin/> People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic [[Temple Grandin]] described her inability to understand the [[social communication]] of [[neurotypical]]s, or people with normal [[neural development]], as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars".<ref>{{vcite book |title=[[An Anthropologist on Mars]]: Seven Paradoxical Tales |author=[[Oliver Sacks|Sacks O]] |publisher=Knopf |year=1995 |isbn=0-679-43785-1 }}</ref> Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood.<!-- ref name=Volkmar/ --> Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from [[social norms]]; for example, they have less [[eye contact]] and turn taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as the deficiency to point at things.<ref name=Volkmar/> Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form [[Attachment (psychology)|attachments]] to their primary caregivers.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2004 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=221–33 |title=Early detection of core deficits in autism |author=Sigman M, Dijamco A, Gratier M, Rozga A |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20046 |pmid=15666338 }}</ref> Most autistic children display moderately less [[Attachment in children#Secure attachment|attachment security]] than non-autistic children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |year=2004 |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=1123–34 |title=Autism and attachment: a meta-analytic review |author=Rutgers AH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH, van Berckelaer-Onnes IA |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00305.x |pmid=15257669 }}</ref> Older children and adults with ASD [[Face perception#Face perception in individuals with autism|perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition]].<ref name=Sigman>{{vcite journal |journal=Annu Rev Clin Psychol |year=2006 |volume=2 |pages=327–55 |title=Autism from developmental and neuropsychological perspectives |author=Sigman M, Spence SJ, Wang AT |doi=10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095210 |pmid=17716073 }}</ref> Children with high-functioning autism suffer from more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.<ref name=Burgess/> There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and [[tantrum]]s. A 2007 study interviewed parents of 67 children with ASD and reported that about two-thirds of the children had periods of severe tantrums and about one-third had a history of aggression, with tantrums significantly more common than in non-autistic children with language impairments.<ref name=Dominick/> A 2008 Swedish study found that, of individuals aged 15 or older discharged from hospital with a diagnosis of ASD, those who committed violent crimes were significantly more likely to have other psychopathological conditions such as [[psychosis]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Interpers Violence |year=2008 |title=Risk factors for violent offending in autism spectrum disorder: a national study of hospitalized individuals |author=Långström N, Grann M, Ruchkin V, Sjöstedt G, Fazel S |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=1358–70 |doi=10.1177/0886260508322195 |pmid=18701743 }}</ref> ===Communication=== About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Intellect Disabil Res |year=2006 |volume=50 |issue=9 |pages=621–32 |title=The ComFor: an instrument for the indication of augmentative communication in people with autism and intellectual disability |author=Noens I, van Berckelaer-Onnes I, Verpoorten R, van Duijn G |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00807.x |pmid=16901289 }}</ref> Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of [[babbling]], unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words ([[echolalia]])<ref name=Landa/><ref name=Tager-Flusberg/> or [[Pronoun reversal|reverse pronouns]].<ref name=Kanner1943/> [[Joint attention]] seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD:<ref name=Johnson>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2007 |volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=1183–215 |title=Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders |author=Johnson CP, Myers SM, Council on Children with Disabilities |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-2361 |pmid=17967920 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/120/5/1183}}</ref> for example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object,<ref name=Volkmar/><ref name=Tager-Flusberg/> and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience.<ref name=Johnson/> Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.<ref name=Landa>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=16–25 |title=Early communication development and intervention for children with autism |author=Landa R |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20134 |pmid=17326115 }}</ref><ref name=Tager-Flusberg>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatr Clin North Am |year=2007 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=469–81 |title=Language disorders: autism and other pervasive developmental disorders |author=[[Helen Tager-Flusberg|Tager-Flusberg H]], Caronna E |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2007.02.011 |pmid=17543905 }}</ref> In a pair of studies, high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.<ref name=Williams/> ===Repetitive behavior=== Autistic individuals display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R)<ref name=Lam-Aman/> categorizes as follows. [[File:Autistic-sweetiepie-boy-with-ducksinarow.jpg|thumb|alt=Young boy asleep on a bed, facing the camera, with only the head visible and the body off-camera. On the bed behind the boy's head is a dozen or so toys carefully arranged in a line.|A young boy with autism who has arranged his toys in a row]] * '''[[Stereotypy]]''' is repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking. * '''[[Compulsive behavior]]''' is intended and appears to follow rules, such as arranging objects in stacks or lines. * '''Sameness''' is resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted. * '''[[Ritual#Psychology|Ritualistic behavior]]''' involves an unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.<ref name=Lam-Aman>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2007 |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=855–66 |title=The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders |author=Lam KSL, Aman MG |doi=10.1007/s10803-006-0213-z |pmid=17048092 }}</ref> * '''Restricted behavior''' is limited in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy or game. * '''[[Self-injury]]''' includes movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye-poking, [[Dermatillomania|skin-picking]], hand-biting and head-banging.<ref name=Johnson/> A 2007 study reported that self-injury at some point affected about 30% of children with ASD.<ref name=Dominick/> No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but only autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2000 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=237–43 |title=Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation |author=Bodfish JW, Symons FJ, Parker DE, Lewis MH |doi=10.1023/A:1005596502855 |pmid=11055459 }}</ref> ===Other symptoms=== Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family.<ref name=Filipek>{{vcite journal |author=Filipek PA, Accardo PJ, Baranek GT ''et al.'' |author.= |title=The screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=1999 |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=439–84 |doi=10.1023/A:1021943802493 |pmid=10638459 }} This paper represents a consensus of representatives from nine professional and four parent organizations in the US.</ref> An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious [[Savant syndrome|autistic savants]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Treffert DA |title=The savant syndrome: an extraordinary condition. A synopsis: past, present, future |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=364 |issue=1522 |pages=1351–7 |year=2009 |pmid=19528017 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0326 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1351.full |laysummary=https://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/professional/savant-syndrome/savant-syndrome-overview/|laysource=Wisconsin Medical Society |pmc=2677584 }}</ref> Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Plaisted Grant K, Davis G |title=Perception and apperception in autism: rejecting the inverse assumption |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=364 |issue=1522 |pages=1393–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19528022 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2009.0001 |pmc=2677593 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1522/1393.full }}</ref> [[Sensory system|Sensory]] abnormalities are found in over 90% of those with autism, and are considered core features by some,<ref name=Geschwind-2009>{{vcite journal |author=Geschwind DH |title=Advances in autism |journal=Annu Rev Med |volume=60 |pages=367–80 |year=2009 |pmid=19630577 |doi=10.1146/annurev.med.60.053107.121225 |pmc=3645857}}</ref> although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |year=2005 |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1255–68 |title=Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence |author=Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x |pmid=16313426 }}</ref> Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements).<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2009 |title=A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders |author=Ben-Sasson A, Hen L, Fluss R, Cermak SA, Engel-Yeger B, Gal E |doi=10.1007/s10803-008-0593-3 |pmid=18512135 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 }}</ref> An estimated 60%–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include [[poor muscle tone]], [[Apraxia|poor motor planning]], and [[toe walking]];<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Fournier KA, Hass CJ, Naik SK, Lodha N, Cauraugh JH |title=Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: a synthesis and meta-analysis |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |volume= |issue= |pages= |year=2010 |pmid=20195737 |doi=10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3 }}</ref> Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur;<ref name=Dominick>{{vcite journal |journal=Res Dev Disabil |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=145–62 |title=Atypical behaviors in children with autism and children with a history of language impairment |author=Dominick KC, Davis NO, Lainhart J, Tager-Flusberg H, Folstein S |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2006.02.003 |pmid=16581226 }}</ref> this does not appear to result in [[malnutrition]]. Although some children with autism also have [[gastrointestinal]] (GI) symptoms, there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that autistic children have more or different GI symptoms than usual;<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=713–27 |title=Gastrointestinal factors in autistic disorder: a critical review |author=Erickson CA, Stigler KA, Corkins MR, Posey DJ, Fitzgerald JF, McDougle CJ |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-0019-4 |pmid=16267642 }}</ref> studies report conflicting results, and the relationship between GI problems and ASD is unclear.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Buie T, Campbell DB, Fuchs GJ 3rd ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in individuals with ASDs: a consensus report |journal=Pediatrics |volume=125 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S1–18 |year=2010 |pmid=20048083 |doi=10.1542/peds.2009-1878C |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/125/Supplement_1/S1 }}</ref> Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of [[stress (psychological)|stress]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=5 |pages=e1040–6 |title=Psychological functioning and coping among mothers of children with autism: a population-based study |author=Montes G, Halterman JS |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-2819 |pmid=17473077 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/119/5/e1040 }}</ref>{{Unreliable medical source|date=December 2013}} Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with [[Down syndrome]] in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with [[Down syndrome]]; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=313–20 |title=Siblings of individuals with autism spectrum disorders across the life course |author=Orsmond GI, Seltzer MM |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20171 |pmid=17979200 |url=http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/family/pubs/Autism/2007%20siblings_autism_life-course.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> ==Causes== {{main|Causes of autism}} It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms.<ref name=Fractionable/> However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.<ref name=Fractionable>{{vcite journal |author=Happé F, Ronald A |title=The 'fractionable autism triad': a review of evidence from behavioural, genetic, cognitive and neural research |journal=[[Neuropsychol Rev]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=287–304 |year=2008 |pmid=18956240 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8 }}</ref><ref name=HappeTime/> [[File:Single Chromosome Mutations.png|thumb|alt=Three diagrams of chromosome pairs A, B that are nearly identical. 1: B is missing a segment of A. 2: B has two adjacent copies of a segment of A. 3: B's copy of A's segment is in reverse order.|Deletion (1), duplication (2) and inversion (3) are all [[chromosome abnormalities]] that have been implicated in autism.<ref name=Beaudet/>]] Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare [[mutation]]s with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants.<ref name=Abrahams>{{vcite journal |journal=[[Nature Reviews Genetics]] |year=2008 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=341–55 |title=Advances in autism genetics: on the threshold of a new neurobiology |author=Abrahams BS, Geschwind DH |doi=10.1038/nrg2346 |pmid=18414403 |pmc=2756414 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite journal |author=Buxbaum JD |title=Multiple rare variants in the etiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Dialogues Clin Neurosci |year=2009 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=35–43 |pmid=19432386 |pmc=3181906/ }}</ref> Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and [[epigenetic]] factors which do not change [[DNA]] but are heritable and influence [[gene expression]].<ref name=Rapin>{{vcite journal |author=[[Isabelle Rapin|Rapin I]], Tuchman RF |title=Autism: definition, neurobiology, screening, diagnosis |journal=[[Pediatr Clin North Am]] |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=1129–46 |year=2008 |pmid=18929056 |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2008.07.005 }}</ref> Studies of twins suggest that [[heritability]] is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) mutation or to a single [[chromosome abnormality]], and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD.<ref name=Abrahams/> Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene.<ref name=Abrahams/> The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from [[copy number variation]]s—spontaneous [[Deletion (genetics)|deletions]] or [[Gene duplication|duplications]] in genetic material during [[meiosis]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Cook EH, Scherer SW |title=Copy-number variations associated with neuropsychiatric conditions |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7215 |pages=919–23 |year=2008 |pmid=18923514 |doi=10.1038/nature07458 }}</ref> Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome.<ref name=Beaudet>{{vcite journal |author=Beaudet AL |title=Autism: highly heritable but not inherited |journal=Nat Med |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=534–6 |pmid=17479094 |doi=10.1038/nm0507-534 }}</ref> Several lines of evidence point to [[Synapse|synaptic]] dysfunction as a cause of autism.<ref name=Levy/> Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with [[cell adhesion]].<ref name=Betancur>{{vcite journal |author=Betancur C, Sakurai T, Buxbaum JD |title=The emerging role of synaptic cell-adhesion pathways in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorders |journal=[[Trends Neurosci]] |volume=32 |issue=7 |pages=402–12 |year=2009 |pmid=19541375 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2009.04.003 }}</ref> Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes.<ref name=Walsh>{{vcite journal |author=Walsh CA, Morrow EM, Rubenstein JL |title=Autism and brain development |journal=[[Cell (journal)|Cell]] |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=396–400 |year=2008 |pmid=18984148 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.015 |pmc=2701104 }}</ref> All known [[teratogen]]s (agents that cause [[birth defect]]s) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from [[Human fertilization|conception]], and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, it is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.<ref name=Arndt>{{vcite journal |journal=[[Int J Dev Neurosci]] |year=2005 |volume=23 |issue=2–3 |pages=189–99 |title=The teratology of autism |author=Arndt TL, Stodgell CJ, Rodier PM |doi=10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.11.001 |pmid=15749245 }}</ref> Although evidence for other environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies,<ref name=Rutter/> extensive searches are underway.<ref name=Szpir>{{vcite journal |journal=[[Environ Health Perspect]] |year=2006 |volume=114 |issue=7 |pages=A412–8 |title=Tracing the origins of autism: a spectrum of new studies |author=Szpir M |pmid=16835042 |pmc=1513312 |doi=10.1289/ehp.114-a412}}</ref> [[Environmental factor]]s that have been claimed to contribute to or exacerbate autism, or may be important in future research, include certain foods, [[infectious disease]], [[heavy metals]], [[solvent]]s, [[diesel exhaust]], [[PCBs]], [[phthalates]] and [[phenol]]s used in plastic products, [[pesticide]]s, [[brominated flame retardant]]s, [[Ethanol|alcohol]], smoking, [[illicit drug]]s, [[vaccine]]s,<ref name=Newschaffer/> and [[prenatal stress]],<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=[[Neurosci Biobehav Rev]] |year=2008 |title=Prenatal stress and risk for autism |author=Kinney DK, Munir KM, Crowley DJ, Miller AM |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.06.004 |pmid=18598714 |volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=1519–32 |pmc=2632594 }}</ref> although no links have been found, and some have been completely disproven. Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming [[Vaccine controversy#Vaccine overload|vaccine "overload"]], a [[Thiomersal controversy|vaccine preservative]], or the [[MMR vaccine controversy|MMR vaccine]] for causing autism.<ref name=GerberOffit2009/> The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud".<ref name=WakefieldarticleBMJ>{{vcite journal |year= 2011 |pages= c7452 |volume= 342:c7452 |title= Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent |author= Godlee F, Smith J, Marcovitch H |journal = [[BMJ]] |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.c7452.full |doi = 10.1136/bmj.c7452 |pmid=21209060}}</ref> Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible,<ref name=GerberOffit2009/> parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of [[childhood immunizations]], [[MMR vaccine controversy#Disease outbreaks|outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases]] in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.<ref name=vaccines>Vaccines and autism: * {{vcite journal |journal=[[Can J Neurol Sci]] |year=2006 |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=341–6 |title=Immunizations and autism: a review of the literature |author=Doja A, Roberts W |pmid=17168158 }} * {{vcite journal |author=Gerber JS, [[Paul Offit|Offit PA]] |title=Vaccines and autism: a tale of shifting hypotheses |journal=[[Clin Infect Dis]] |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=456–61 |year=2009 |pmid=19128068 |pmc= 2908388 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/4/456.full|doi=10.1086/596476 }} * {{vcite journal |author=Gross L |title=A broken trust: lessons from the vaccine–autism wars |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=e1000114 |year=2009 |pmid=19478850 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000114 |pmc=2682483 }} * {{vcite journal |author=Paul R |title=Parents ask: am I risking autism if I vaccinate my children? |journal=[[J Autism Dev Disord]] |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=962–3 |year=2009 |pmid=19363650 |doi=10.1007/s10803-009-0739-y }} * {{vcite journal |author= Poland GA, Jacobson RM |title= The Age-Old Struggle against the Antivaccinationists |journal= N Engl J Med |volume= 364 |pages= 97–9 |date= 13 January 2011 |url= http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1010594 | doi=10.1056/NEJMp1010594 | pmid=21226573}}</ref><ref name=dublin>{{vcite journal |author=McBrien J, Murphy J, Gill D, Cronin M, O'Donovan C, Cafferkey MT |title=Measles outbreak in Dublin, 2000 |journal=Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=580–4 |year=2003 |month=July |pmid=12867830 |doi=10.1097/00006454-200307000-00002}}</ref> ==Mechanism== Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain.<!-- ref name=Penn/ --> How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the [[pathophysiology]] of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the [[neuropsychological]] linkages between brain structures and behaviors.<ref name=Penn>{{vcite journal |author=Penn HE |title=Neurobiological correlates of autism: a review of recent research |journal=Child Neuropsychol |year=2006 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=57–79 |doi=10.1080/09297040500253546 |pmid=16484102 }}</ref> The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.<ref name=London/> ===Pathophysiology=== [[File:Autismbrain.jpg|thumb|alt=Two diagrams of major brain structures implicated in autism. The upper diagram shows the cerebral cortex near the top and the basal ganglia in the center, just above the amygdala and hippocampus. The lower diagram shows the corpus callosum near the center, the cerebellum in the lower rear, and the brain stem in the lower center.|Autism affects the [[amygdala]], [[cerebellum]], and many other parts of the brain.<ref name=Amaral/>]] Unlike many other brain disorders, such as [[Parkinson's]], autism does not have a clear unifying mechanism at either the molecular, cellular, or systems level; it is not known whether autism is a few disorders caused by mutations converging on a few common molecular pathways, or is (like intellectual disability) a large set of disorders with diverse mechanisms.<ref name=Geschwind>{{vcite journal |author=Geschwind DH |title=Autism: many genes, common pathways? |title.= |journal=Cell |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=391–5 |year=2008 |pmid=18984147 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.016 |pmc=2756410 }}</ref> Autism appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=85–95 |title=The study of autism as a distributed disorder |author=Müller RA |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20141 |pmid=17326118 |pmc=3315379}}</ref> and to disturb the timing of brain development more than the final product.<ref name=Amaral>{{vcite journal |journal=Trends Neurosci |year=2008 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=137–45 |title=Neuroanatomy of autism |author=[[David Amaral|Amaral DG]], Schumann CM, Nordahl CW |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.005 |pmid=18258309 }}</ref> [[Neuroanatomical]] studies and the associations with [[teratogens]] strongly suggest that autism's mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception.<ref name=Arndt/> This anomaly appears to start a cascade of pathological events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental factors.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Brain Pathol |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=422–33 |title=The neuropathology of autism |author=Casanova MF |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00100.x |pmid=17919128 }}</ref> Just after birth, the brains of autistic children tend to grow faster than usual, followed by normal or relatively slower growth in childhood. It is not known whether early overgrowth occurs in all autistic children. It seems to be most prominent in brain areas underlying the development of higher cognitive specialization.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Hypotheses for the cellular and molecular bases of pathological early overgrowth include the following: * An excess of [[neuron]]s that causes local overconnectivity in key brain regions.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Neuron |year=2007 |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=399–413 |title=Mapping early brain development in autism |author=Courchesne E, Pierce K, Schumann CM ''et al.'' |author.= |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.016 |pmid=17964254 }}</ref> * Disturbed [[neuronal migration]] during early [[gestation]].<ref name=Schmitz/><ref name=Persico>{{vcite journal |author=Persico AM, Bourgeron T |title=Searching for ways out of the autism maze: genetic, epigenetic and environmental clues |journal=Trends Neurosci |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=349–58 |year=2006 |pmid=16808981 |doi=10.1016/j.tins.2006.05.010 }}</ref> * Unbalanced excitatory–inhibitory networks.<ref name=Persico/> * Abnormal formation of [[synapse]]s and [[dendritic spine]]s,<ref name=Persico/> for example, by modulation of the [[neurexin]]–[[neuroligin]] [[Cell adhesion|cell-adhesion]] system,<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Südhof TC |title=Neuroligins and neurexins link synaptic function to cognitive disease |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7215 |pages=903–11 |year=2008 |pmid=18923512 |doi=10.1038/nature07456 |pmc=2673233 }}</ref> or by poorly regulated [[Protein synthesis|synthesis]] of synaptic proteins.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Kelleher RJ 3rd, Bear MF |title=The autistic neuron: troubled translation? |title.= |journal=Cell |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=401–6 |year=2008 |pmid=18984149 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.10.017 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite journal |author=Bear MF, Dölen G, Osterweil E, Nagarajan N |title=Fragile X: translation in action. |title.= |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=84–7 |year=2008 |pmid=17940551 |doi=10.1038/sj.npp.1301610 }}</ref> Disrupted synaptic development may also contribute to [[epilepsy]], which may explain why the two conditions are associated.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Tuchman R, Moshé SL, [[Isabelle Rapin|Rapin I]] |title=Convulsing toward the pathophysiology of autism |journal=Brain Dev |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=95–103 |year=2009 |pmid=19006654 |doi=10.1016/j.braindev.2008.09.009 |pmc=2734903 }}</ref> Interactions between the [[immune system]] and the [[nervous system]] begin early during the [[Human embryogenesis|embryonic stage]] of life, and successful neurodevelopment depends on a balanced immune response. Aberrant immune activity during critical periods of neurodevelopment is possibly part of the mechanism of some forms of ASD.<ref name=Chaste>{{vcite journal |author= Chaste P, Leboyer M |title= Autism risk factors: genes, environment, and gene-environment interactions |journal= Dialogues Clin Neurosci |year= 2012 |volume= 14 |issue= 3 |pages= 281–92 |pmid= 23226953 |pmc=3513682}}</ref><ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Leukoc Biol |year=2006 |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |title=The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research |author=[[Paul Ashwood|Ashwood P]], Wills S, Van de Water J |doi=10.1189/jlb.1205707 |pmid=16698940 |url=http://www.jleukbio.org/cgi/content/full/80/1/1 }}</ref> Although some abnormalities in the immune system have been found in specific subgroups of autistic individuals, it is not known whether these abnormalities are relevant to or secondary to autism's processes.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Res Autism Spectr Disord |volume=3 |issue=4 |year=2009 |pages=840–60 |doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2009.01.007 |author=Stigler KA, Sweeten TL, Posey DJ, McDougle CJ |title=Autism and immune factors: a comprehensive review }}</ref> As [[autoantibodies]] are found in conditions other than ASD, and are not always present in ASD,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |year=2007 |volume=1107 |pages=79–91 |title=Autoantibodies in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) |author=Wills S, Cabanlit M, Bennett J, [[Paul Ashwood|Ashwood P]], Amaral D, Van de Water J |doi=10.1196/annals.1381.009 |pmid=17804535 }}</ref> the relationship between immune disturbances and autism remains unclear and controversial.<ref name=Schmitz>{{vcite journal |journal=Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol |year=2008 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=4–11 |title=The neuropathology of autism: where do we stand? |title.= |author=Schmitz C, Rezaie P |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2990.2007.00872.x |pmid=17971078 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite journal |author=Gesundheit B, Rosenzweig JP, Naor D, ''et al.'' |title=Immunological and autoimmune considerations of Autism Spectrum Disorders |journal=J. Autoimmun. |volume= |issue= |pages= |year=2013 |month=July |pmid=23867105 |doi=10.1016/j.jaut.2013.05.005 }}</ref> The relationship of [[neurochemical]]s to autism is not well understood; several have been investigated, with the most evidence for the role of [[serotonin]] and of genetic differences in its transport.<ref name=Levy>{{vcite journal |author=Levy SE, Mandell DS, Schultz RT |title=Autism |journal=Lancet |volume=374 |issue=9701 |pages=1627–38 |year=2009 |pmid=19819542 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61376-3 |pmc=2863325}}</ref> The role of group I [[metabotropic glutamate receptors]] (mGluR) in the pathogenesis of [[fragile X syndrome]], the most common identified genetic cause of autism, has led to interest in the possible implications for future autism research into this pathway.<ref name="pmid18093519">{{vcite journal |author = Dölen G, Osterweil E, Rao BS, Smith GB, Auerbach BD, Chattarji S, Bear MF | title = Correction of fragile X syndrome in mice | journal = Neuron | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 955–62| year = 2007 | pmid = 18093519 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.12.001 | pmc=2199268}}</ref> Some data suggests neuronal overgrowth potentially related to an increase in several [[growth hormone]]s <ref>{{vcite journal |author=Hughes JR |title=Update on autism: A review of 1300 reports published in 2008 |journal=Epilepsy Behav |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=569-589 |year=2009 |pmid=19896907 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.09.023 }}</ref> or to impaired regulation of [[growth factor receptor]]s. Also, some [[inborn errors of metabolism]] are associated with autism, but probably account for less than 5% of cases.<ref name=Manzi/> The [[mirror neuron system]] (MNS) theory of autism hypothesizes that distortion in the development of the MNS interferes with imitation and leads to autism's core features of social impairment and communication difficulties. The MNS operates when an animal performs an action or observes another animal perform the same action. The MNS may contribute to an individual's understanding of other people by enabling the modeling of their behavior via embodied simulation of their actions, intentions, and emotions.<ref>MNS and autism: * {{vcite journal |journal=Autism Res |year=2008 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=73–90 |title=Self–other relations in social development and autism: multiple roles for mirror neurons and other brain bases |author=Williams JHG |doi=10.1002/aur.15 |pmid=19360654 }} * {{vcite journal |journal=Curr Biol |year=2008 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=R13–8 |title=A mirror up to nature |author=Dinstein I, Thomas C, Behrmann M, Heeger DJ |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.004 |pmid=18177704 |pmc=2517574 }}</ref> Several studies have tested this hypothesis by demonstrating structural abnormalities in MNS regions of individuals with ASD, delay in the activation in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with Asperger syndrome, and a correlation between reduced MNS activity and severity of the syndrome in children with ASD.<ref name=Iacoboni>{{vcite journal |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |year=2006 |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=942–51 |title=The mirror neuron system and the consequences of its dysfunction |author=Iacoboni M, Dapretto M |doi=10.1038/nrn2024 |pmid=17115076 }}</ref> However, individuals with autism also have abnormal brain activation in many circuits outside the MNS<ref>{{vcite journal |author=[[Uta Frith|Frith U]], Frith CD |year=2003 |title=Development and neurophysiology of mentalizing |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=358 |issue=1431 |pages=459–73 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2002.1218 |pmid=12689373 |pmc=1693139 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/358/1431/459.full.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> and the MNS theory does not explain the normal performance of autistic children on imitation tasks that involve a goal or object.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Q J Exp Psychol |year=2008 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=101–15 |title=Emulation and mimicry for social interaction: a theoretical approach to imitation in autism |author=Hamilton AFdC |doi=10.1080/17470210701508798 |pmid=18038342 |first2=<!-- Work around Citation bot bug. --> |last2=<!-- Work around Citation bot bug. --> }}</ref> [[File:Powell2004Fig1A.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=A human brain viewed from above. About 10% is highlighted in yellow and 10% in blue. There is only a tiny (perhaps 0.5%) green region where they overlap.|Autistic individuals tend to use different areas of the brain (yellow) for a movement task compared to a control group (blue).<ref name=Powell>{{vcite journal |author=Powell K |title=Opening a window to the autistic brain |journal=PLoS Biol |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=E267 |year=2004 |pmid=15314667 |pmc=509312 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020267 |url=http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020267 }}</ref>]] ASD-related patterns of low function and aberrant activation in the brain differ depending on whether the brain is doing social or nonsocial tasks.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Biol Psychiatry |year=2009 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=63–74 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.09.022 |pmid=18996505 |author=Di Martino A, Ross K, Uddin LQ, Sklar AB, Castellanos FX, Milham MP |title=Functional brain correlates of social and nonsocial processes in autism spectrum disorders: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis }}</ref> In autism there is evidence for reduced functional connectivity of the [[default network]], a large-scale brain network involved in social and emotional processing, with intact connectivity of the [[task-positive network]], used in sustained attention and goal-directed thinking. In people with autism the two networks are not negatively correlated in time, suggesting an imbalance in toggling between the two networks, possibly reflecting a disturbance of [[self-referential]] thought.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Broyd SJ, Demanuele C, Debener S, Helps SK, James CJ, Sonuga-Barke EJS |title=Default-mode brain dysfunction in mental disorders: a systematic review |journal=Neurosci Biobehav Rev |year=2009 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=279–96 |pmid=18824195 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.002 }}</ref> A 2008 brain-imaging study found a specific pattern of signals in the [[cingulate cortex]] which differs in individuals with ASD.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Neuron |year=2008 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=463–73 |title=Self responses along cingulate cortex reveal quantitative neural phenotype for high-functioning autism |author=Chiu PH, Kayali MA, Kishida KT ''et al.'' |author.= |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2007.12.020 |pmid=18255038 |laysummary=http://www.technologyreview.com/Biotech/20167/ |laysource=Technol Rev |laydate=7 February 2007 }}</ref> The underconnectivity theory of autism hypothesizes that autism is marked by underfunctioning high-level neural connections and synchronization, along with an excess of low-level processes.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Cereb Cortex |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=951–61 |title=Functional and anatomical cortical underconnectivity in autism: evidence from an FMRI study of an executive function task and corpus callosum morphometry |author=Just MA, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Kana RK, Minshew NJ |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhl006 |pmid=16772313 |url=http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/4/951 }}</ref> Evidence for this theory has been found in [[functional neuroimaging]] studies on autistic individuals<ref name=Williams>{{vcite journal |author=Williams DL, Goldstein G, Minshew NJ |title=Neuropsychologic functioning in children with autism: further evidence for disordered complex information-processing |journal=Child Neuropsychol |volume=12 |issue=4–5 |pages=279–98 |year=2006 |pmid=16911973 |doi=10.1080/09297040600681190 |pmc=1803025 }}</ref> and by a [[Electroencephalography|brainwave]] study that suggested that adults with ASD have local overconnectivity in the [[Cerebral cortex|cortex]] and weak functional connections between the [[frontal lobe]] and the rest of the cortex.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Murias M, Webb SJ, Greenson J, Dawson G |title=Resting state cortical connectivity reflected in EEG coherence in individuals with autism |journal=Biol Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=270–3 |year=2007 |pmid=17336944 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.11.012 |pmc=2001237 }}</ref> Other evidence suggests the underconnectivity is mainly within each [[Cerebral hemisphere|hemisphere]] of the cortex and that autism is a disorder of the [[Association areas|association cortex]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Arch Neurol |year=2007 |volume=64 |issue=7 |pages=945–50 |title=The new neurobiology of autism: cortex, connectivity, and neuronal organization |author=Minshew NJ, Williams DL |pmid=17620483 |doi=10.1001/archneur.64.7.945 |pmc=2597785 }}</ref> From studies based on [[event-related potential]]s, transient changes to the brain's electrical activity in response to stimuli, there is considerable evidence for differences in autistic individuals with respect to attention, orientiation to auditory and visual stimuli, novelty detection, language and face processing, and information storage; several studies have found a preference for nonsocial stimuli.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Jeste SS, Nelson CA 3rd |title=Event related potentials in the understanding of autism spectrum disorders: an analytical review |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=495–510 |year=2009 |pmid=18850262 |doi=10.1007/s10803-008-0652-9 }}</ref> For example, [[magnetoencephalography]] studies have found evidence in autistic children of delayed responses in the brain's processing of auditory signals.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Roberts TP, Schmidt GL, Egeth M ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Electrophysiological signatures: magnetoencephalographic studies of the neural correlates of language impairment in autism spectrum disorders |journal=Int J Psychophysiol |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=149–60 |year=2008 |pmid=18336941 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.01.012 |pmc=2397446 }}</ref> In the genetic area, relations have been found between autism and [[schizophrenia]] based on duplications and deletions of chromosomes; research showed that schizophrenia and autism are significantly more common in combination with [[1q21.1 deletion syndrome]]. Research on autism/schizophrenia relations for chromosome 15 (15q13.3), chromosome 16 (16p13.1) and chromosome 17 (17p12) are inconclusive.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Crespi B, Stead P, Elliot M |title=Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Comparative genomics of autism and schizophrenia |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=107 | issue= Suppl 1 |pages=1736–41 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=19955444 |pmc=2868282 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0906080106}}</ref> ===Neuropsychology=== Two major categories of [[cognitive]] theories have been proposed about the links between autistic brains and behavior. The first category focuses on deficits in [[social cognition]]. [[Simon Baron-Cohen]]'s [[empathizing–systemizing theory]] postulates that autistic individuals can systemize—that is, they can develop internal rules of operation to handle events inside the brain—but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents. An extension, the extreme male brain theory, hypothesizes that autism is an extreme case of the male brain, defined psychometrically as individuals in whom systemizing is better than empathizing.<ref name=E-S-theory/> These theories are somewhat related to Baron-Cohen's earlier [[theory of mind]] approach, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from an inability to ascribe mental states to oneself and others. The theory of mind hypothesis is supported by autistic children's atypical responses to the [[Sally–Anne test]] for reasoning about others' motivations,<ref name=E-S-theory>{{vcite journal |author=Baron-Cohen S |title=Autism: the empathizing–systemizing (E-S) theory |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1156 |pages=68–80 |year=2009 |pmid=19338503 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04467.x |url=http://docs.autismresearchcentre.com/papers/2009_BC_nyas.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> and the mirror neuron system theory of autism described in ''[[#Pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]'' maps well to the hypothesis.<ref name=Iacoboni/> However, most studies have found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Hamilton AFdC |title=Goals, intentions and mental states: challenges for theories of autism |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=881–92 |year=2009 |pmid=19508497 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02098.x }}</ref> The second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing: the [[executive functions]] such as [[working memory]], planning, [[Inhibition Theory|inhibition]]. In his review, Kenworthy states that "the claim of [[executive dysfunction]] as a causal factor in autism is controversial", however, "it is clear that executive dysfunction plays a role in the social and cognitive deficits observed in individuals with autism".<ref name=Kenworthy/> Tests of core executive processes such as eye movement tasks indicate improvement from late childhood to adolescence, but performance never reaches typical adult levels.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=O'Hearn K, Asato M, Ordaz S, Luna B |title=Neurodevelopment and executive function in autism |journal=Dev Psychopathol |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=1103–32 |year=2008 |pmid=18838033 |doi=10.1017/S0954579408000527 }}</ref> A strength of the theory is predicting stereotyped behavior and narrow interests;<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Hill EL |title=Executive dysfunction in autism |journal=Trends Cogn Sci |year=2004 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=26–32 |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001 |pmid=14697400 }}</ref> two weaknesses are that executive function is hard to measure<ref name=Kenworthy>{{vcite journal |author=Kenworthy L, Yerys BE, Anthony LG, Wallace GL |title=Understanding executive control in autism spectrum disorders in the lab and in the real world |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=320–38 |year=2008 |pmid=18956239 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9077-7 |pmc=2856078}}</ref> and that executive function deficits have not been found in young autistic children.<ref name=Sigman/> [[Weak central coherence theory]] hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in autism. One strength of this theory is predicting special talents and peaks in performance in autistic people.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Happé F, Frith U |title=The weak coherence account: detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2006 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=5–25 |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0 |pmid=16450045 }}</ref> A related theory—enhanced perceptual functioning—focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and [[perceptual]] operations in autistic individuals.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2006 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=27–43 |title=Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: an update, and eight principles of autistic perception |author=Mottron L, [[Michelle Dawson|Dawson M]], Soulières I, Hubert B, Burack J |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-0040-7 |pmid=16453071 }}</ref> These theories map well from the underconnectivity theory of autism. Neither category is satisfactory on its own; social cognition theories poorly address autism's rigid and repetitive behaviors, while the nonsocial theories have difficulty explaining social impairment and communication difficulties.<ref name=HappeTime>{{vcite journal |author=Happé F, Ronald A, [[Robert Plomin|Plomin R]] |title=Time to give up on a single explanation for autism |journal=Nature Neuroscience |year=2006 |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=1218–20 |doi=10.1038/nn1770 |pmid=17001340 }}</ref> A combined theory based on multiple deficits may prove to be more useful.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Dev Rev |year=2007 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=224–60 |title=Cognitive theories of autism |author=Rajendran G, Mitchell P |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2007.02.001 }}</ref> ==Diagnosis== [[Medical diagnosis|Diagnosis]] is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism.<ref name=London>{{vcite journal|journal=Brain Pathol |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=408–11 |title=The role of the neurobiologist in redefining the diagnosis of autism |author=London E |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00103.x |pmid=17919126 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite journal|journal=BMJ |year=2003 |volume=327 |issue=7413 |pages=488–93 |title=Diagnosis of autism |author=Baird G, Cass H, Slonims V |doi=10.1136/bmj.327.7413.488 |pmid=12946972 |pmc=188387 |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/327/7413/488 }}</ref> Autism is defined in the [[DSM-IV-TR]] as exhibiting at least six symptoms total, including at least two symptoms of qualitative impairment in social interaction, at least one symptom of qualitative impairment in communication, and at least one symptom of restricted and repetitive behavior. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or [[Idiosyncrasy#Psychiatry and psychology|idiosyncratic language]], and persistent preoccupation with parts of objects. Onset must be prior to age three years, with delays or abnormal functioning in either social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome]] or [[childhood disintegrative disorder]].<ref name=DSM-IV-TR-299.00/> [[ICD-10]] uses essentially the same definition.<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0>{{vcite web|url=http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?gf80.htm+f84 |year=2007 |accessdate=10 October 2009|work=ICD-10: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems: Tenth Revision|publisher=World Health Organization |title=F84. Pervasive developmental disorders }}</ref> Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the [[Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised]] (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the [[Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule]] (ADOS)<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Gotham K, Risi S, Dawson G, ''et al.'' |title=A replication of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) revised algorithms |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=47 |issue=6|pages=642–51 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18434924 |pmc=3057666 |doi=10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816bffb7 |url=}}</ref> uses observation and interaction with the child. The [[Childhood Autism Rating Scale]] (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children.<ref name=Volkmar/> A [[pediatrician]] commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated [[medical conditions]].<ref name=Dover/> A pediatric [[neuropsychologist]] is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions.<ref name=Kanne>{{vcite journal|author=Kanne SM, Randolph JK, Farmer JE |title=Diagnostic and assessment findings: a bridge to academic planning for children with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=367–84 |year=2008|pmid=18855144 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9072-z }}</ref> A [[differential diagnosis]] for ASD at this stage might also consider [[intellectual disability]], [[hearing impairment]], and a [[specific language impairment]]<ref name=Dover/> such as [[Landau–Kleffner syndrome]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Dev Med Child Neurol |year=2000 |volume=42 |issue=5|pages=349–53 |title=Autistic regression and Landau–Kleffner syndrome: progress or confusion? |title.= |author=Mantovani JF |doi=10.1017/S0012162200210621 |pmid=10855658 }}</ref> The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as [[Major depressive disorder|depression]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Matson JL, Neal D|title=Cormorbidity: diagnosing comorbid psychiatric conditions |journal=Psychiatr Times |volume=26 |issue=4 |year=2009|url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1403043 }}</ref> [[Clinical genetics]] evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause.<ref name=Caronna/> Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Genet Med |year=2008 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=4–12 |title=Genetics evaluation for the etiologic diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders |author=Schaefer GB, Mendelsohn NJ|doi=10.1097/GIM.0b013e31815efdd7 |pmid=18197051 |laysummary=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/96448.php|laysource=Medical News Today |laydate=7 February 2008 }}</ref> consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and [[fragile X]] testing.<ref name=Caronna/> A [[genotype]]-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Ledbetter DH|title=Cytogenetic technology—genotype and phenotype |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=359 |issue=16 |pages=1728–30 |year=2008|pmid=18784093 |doi=10.1056/NEJMe0806570 }}</ref> As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics |year=2006 |volume=142C|issue=1 |pages=52–7 |title=Genetic counseling and ethical issues for autism |author=McMahon WM, Baty BJ, Botkin J|doi=10.1002/ajmg.c.30082 |pmid=16419100 }}</ref> [[Metabolic]] and [[neuroimaging]] tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.<ref name=Caronna/> ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later.<ref name=Landa3>{{vcite journal |journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol |year=2008 |volume=4|issue=3 |pages=138–47 |title=Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in the first 3 years of life |author=Landa RJ|doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0731 |pmid=18253102 }}</ref> In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice.<ref name=Dover>{{vcite journal |journal=Arch Dis Child |year=2007 |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=540–5 |title=How to diagnose autism |author=Dover CJ, Le Couteur A |doi=10.1136/adc.2005.086280 |pmid=17515625 }}</ref> A 2009 US study found the average age of formal ASD diagnosis was 5.7 years, far above recommendations, and that 27% of children remained undiagnosed at age 8 years.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=[[Paul Shattuck|Shattuck PT]], Durkin M, Maenner M ''et al.'' |author.=|title=Timing of identification among children with an autism spectrum disorder: findings from a population-based surveillance study |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=474–83 |year=2009 |pmid=19318992|doi=10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819b3848 }}</ref> Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits.<ref>{{vcite web |publisher=National Autistic Society |title=Diagnosis: how can it benefit me as an adult?|title.= |year=2005|url=http://archive.is/1jEkC|accessdate=24 March 2008 }}</ref> Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Shattuck PT, Grosse SD |title=Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year=2007 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=129–35|doi=10.1002/mrdd.20143 |pmid=17563895 }}</ref> It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the [[visually impaired]], partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or [[blindism]]s.<ref>{{vcite journal |title=Visual impairment and autism: current questions and future research |author=Cass H |journal=Autism |year=1998 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=117–38|doi=10.1177/1362361398022002 }}</ref> ===Classification=== Autism is one of the five [[pervasive developmental disorder]]s (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior.<ref name=ICD-10-F84.0/> These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.<ref name=Rapin/> Of the five PDD forms, [[Asperger syndrome]] is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; [[Rett syndrome]] and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; [[PDD not otherwise specified]] (PDD-NOS; also called ''atypical autism'') is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Volkmar FR, State M, Klin A |title=Autism and autism spectrum disorders: diagnostic issues for the coming decade |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=50 |issue=1–2 |pages=108–15 |year=2009|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02010.x |pmid=19220594 }}</ref> Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in [[language development]].<ref name=DSM-IV-TR-299.00/> The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the ''autism spectrum disorders'' (ASD)<ref name=CCD/> or sometimes the ''autistic disorders'',<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Freitag CM |title=The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: a review of the literature |journal=Mol Psychiatry |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2–22 |year=2007|doi=10.1038/sj.mp.4001896 |pmid=17033636 }}</ref> whereas autism itself is often called ''autistic disorder'',''childhood autism'', or ''infantile autism''. In this article, ''autism'' refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, ''autism'', ''ASD'', and ''PDD'' are often used interchangeably.<ref name=Caronna>{{vcite journal |journal=Arch Dis Child |year=2008 |volume=93 |issue=6 |pages=518–23 |title=Autism spectrum disorders: clinical and research frontiers |author=Caronna EB, Milunsky JM, Tager-Flusberg H |doi=10.1136/adc.2006.115337 |pmid=18305076}}</ref> ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism [[phenotype]], which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like [[Trait (biology)|traits]], such as avoiding eye contact.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Piven J, Palmer P, Jacobi D, Childress D, Arndt S |title=Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families |journal=Am J Psychiatry |year=1997 |volume=154 |issue=2 |pages=185–90 |pmid=9016266}}</ref> The manifestations of autism cover a wide [[Spectrum disorder|spectrum]], ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, [[developmentally disabled]], and locked into hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, [[pedantic]] communication.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Happé F |title=Understanding assets and deficits in autism: why success is more interesting than failure |journal=Psychologist |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=540–7 |year=1999|url=http://www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_12-editionID_46-ArticleID_133-getfile_getPDF/thepsychologist/psy_11_99_p540-547_happe.pdf|format=PDF }}</ref> Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or [[high-functioning autism]] (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on [[IQ]] thresholds,<ref>{{vcite journal |author=[[Simon Baron-Cohen|Baron-Cohen S]]|title=The hyper-systemizing, assortative mating theory of autism |journal=Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry|year=2006 |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=865–72 |doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.010 |pmid=16519981|url=http://autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2006_BC_Neuropsychophamacology.pdf |format=PDF |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120513020615/http://autismresearchcentre.com/docs/papers/2006_BC_Neuropsychophamacology.pdf|archivedate=12 May 2012 }}</ref> or on how much support the individual requires in daily life; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial. Autism can also be divided into [[Syndrome|syndromal]] and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound [[intellectual disability]] or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as [[tuberous sclerosis]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=1|pages=103–16 |title=Specific genetic disorders and autism: clinical contribution towards their identification|author=Cohen D, Pichard N, Tordjman S ''et al.'' |author.= |doi=10.1007/s10803-004-1038-2 |pmid=15796126 }}</ref> Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the [[Diagnosis of Asperger syndrome#Differences from high-functioning autism|overlap between Asperger syndrome, HFA, and non-syndromal autism]] is unclear.<ref>Validity of ASD subtypes: * {{vcite journal |journal=Rev Bras Psiquiatr |year=2006 |volume=28 |issue=suppl 1 |pages=S3–S11 |title=Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview |author=Klin A |doi=10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002 |pmid=16791390|url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en }} * {{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=1611–24 |year=2008 |title=Examining the validity of autism spectrum disorder subtypes |author=Witwer AN, Lecavalier L |doi=10.1007/s10803-008-0541-2 |pmid=18327636}}</ref> Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that [[regressive autism]] is a specific subtype,<ref name=Stefanatos>{{vcite journal |author=Stefanatos GA|title=Regression in autistic spectrum disorders |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=305–19 |year=2008|pmid=18956241 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9073-y }}</ref><ref name=Volkmar>{{vcite journal |author=Volkmar F, Chawarska K, Klin A |title=Autism in infancy and early childhood |journal=Annu Rev Psychol |year=2005 |volume=56 |pages=315–36|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070159 |pmid=15709938 }} A partial update is in: {{vcite journal |journal=World Psychiatry |year=2008 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=19–21 |title=Autism in infants: an update |author=Volkmar FR, Chawarska K|pmid=18458791 |pmc=2366821 }}</ref><ref name=Landa/><ref name=Landa3/> or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Ozonoff S, Heung K, Byrd R, Hansen R, [[Irva Hertz-Picciotto|Hertz-Picciotto I]] |title=The onset of autism: patterns of symptom emergence in the first years of life|journal=Autism Res |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=320–328 |year=2008 |pmid=19360687 |doi=10.1002/aur.53 |pmc=2857525}}</ref> Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2008 |volume=121 |issue=6 |pages=1225–9 |title=Autism and the environment: challenges and opportunities for research |author=Altevogt BM, Hanson SL, Leshner AI|doi=10.1542/peds.2007-3000 |pmid=18519493 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/6/1225 }}</ref> and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of [[psychiatry]], [[psychology]], [[neurology]] and [[pediatrics]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Reiss AL |title=Childhood developmental disorders: an academic and clinical convergence point for psychiatry, neurology, psychology and pediatrics |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |volume=50|issue=1-2 |pages=87–98 |year=2009 |pmid=19220592 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02046.x }}</ref> Newer technologies such as [[fMRI]] and [[diffusion tensor imaging]] can help identify biologically relevant [[phenotype]]s (observable traits) that can be viewed on [[brain scan]]s, to help further [[neurogenetic]] studies of autism;<ref>{{vcite journal|author=Piggot J, Shirinyan D, Shemmassian S, Vazirian S, Alarcón M |title=Neural systems approaches to the neurogenetics of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Neuroscience |volume=164 |issue=1 |pages=247–56 |year=2009 |pmid=19482063|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.054 }}</ref> one example is lowered activity in the [[fusiform face area]] of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects.<ref name=Levy/> It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |year=2008 |volume=82|issue=1 |pages=7–9 |title=Unraveling autism |author=Stephan DA |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.003 |pmid=18179879|pmc=2253980 }}</ref> ==Screening== About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months.<ref name=Landa3/> According to an article in the ''Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders'', failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome".<ref name=Filipek/> * No [[babbling]] by 12 months. * No [[Gesture|gesturing]] (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months. * No single words by 16 months. * No two-word (spontaneous, not just [[echolalia|echolalic]]) phrases by 24 months. * Any loss of any language or social skills, at any age. US and Japanese practice is to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective.<ref name=Levy/> Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor CHAT on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low [[Sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] (many false-negatives) but good [[Specificity (tests)|specificity]] (few false-positives).<ref name=Landa3/> It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Wetherby AM, Brosnan-Maddox S, Peace V, Newton L |title=Validation of the Infant–Toddler Checklist as a broadband screener for autism spectrum disorders from 9 to 24 months of age |journal=Autism |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=487–511 |year=2008 |pmid=18805944 |doi=10.1177/1362361308094501 |pmc=2663025 }}</ref> Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Acta Paediatr |year=2008 |volume=97 |issue=5 |pages=539–40 |title=The challenge of screening for autism spectrum disorder in a culturally diverse society |author=Wallis KE, Pinto-Martin J |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00720.x |pmid=18373717 }}</ref> Although [[genetic screening]] for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and [[dysmorphic feature]]s.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Lintas C, Persico AM |title=Autistic phenotypes and genetic testing: state-of-the-art for the clinical geneticist |journal=Journal of Medical Genetics |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |year=2009 |pmid=18728070 |pmc=2603481 |doi=10.1136/jmg.2008.060871 |url=http://jmg.bmj.com/content/46/1/1.long }}</ref> ==Management== {{main|Autism therapies}} [[File:Opening a window to the autistic brain.jpg|thumb|alt=A young child points, in front of a woman who smiles and points in the same direction.|A three-year-old with autism points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development.<ref name=Powell/>]] The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs.<ref name=CCD/> Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment.<ref name=Levy/> Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about [[efficacy]].<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Ospina MB, Krebs Seida J, Clark B ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Behavioural and developmental interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a clinical systematic review |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=e3755 |year=2008 |pmid=19015734 |pmc=2582449 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0003755 }}</ref> Although many [[psychosocial]] interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of [[systematic review]]s of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Krebs Seida J, Ospina MB, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Smith V, Clark B |title=Systematic reviews of psychosocial interventions for autism: an umbrella review |journal=Dev Med Child Neurol |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=95–104 |year=2009 |pmid=19191842 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03211.x }}</ref> Intensive, sustained [[special education]] programs and [[behavior therapy]] early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills,<ref name=CCD>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2007 |volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=1162–82 |title=Management of children with autism spectrum disorders |author=Myers SM, Johnson CP, Council on Children with Disabilities |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-2362 |pmid=17967921}}</ref> and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors;<ref name=Rogers>{{vcite journal |journal=J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol |year=2008 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=8–38 |title=Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism |author=Rogers SJ, Vismara LA |doi=10.1080/15374410701817808 |pmid=18444052 |pmc=2943764}}</ref> claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.<ref name=HowlinCharman>{{vcite journal |author=Howlin P, Magiati I, Charman T |title=Systematic review of early intensive behavioral interventions for children with autism |journal=Am J Intellect Dev Disabil |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=23–41 |year=2009 |pmid=19143460 |doi=10.1352/2009.114:23-41 }}</ref> Available approaches include [[applied behavior analysis]] (ABA), developmental models, [[TEACCH|structured teaching]], [[speech and language therapy]], [[social skills]] therapy, and [[occupational therapy]].<ref name=CCD/> There is some evidence that early intensive behavioral intervention, an early intervention model for 20 to 40 hours a week for multiple years, is an effective behavioral treatment for some children with ASD.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Reichow B, Barton EE, Boyd BA, Hume K |title=Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=10 |issue= |pages=CD009260 |year=2012 |pmid=23076956 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009260.pub2 }}</ref> Educational interventions can be effective to varying degrees in most children: [[Early intensive behavioral intervention|intensive ABA treatment]] has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children<ref name=Eikeseth>{{vcite journal |journal=Res Dev Disabil |year=2009 |title=Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism |author=Eikeseth S |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003 |pmid=18385012 |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=158–78 }}</ref> and is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children.<ref name=Rogers/> Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided.<ref name=Kanne/> It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up,<ref name=Rogers/> and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2003 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=131–40 |title=Effects of a model treatment approach on adults with autism |author=Van Bourgondien ME, Reichle NC, [[Eric Schopler|Schopler E]] |doi=10.1023/A:1022931224934 |pmid=12757352 }}</ref> The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Topics in Language Disorders |year=2003 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=116–133 |title=Inclusion of Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders in General Education Settings |authors= Simpson RL, de Boer-Ott SR, Smith-Myles B|url=http://www.nursingcenter.com/pdf.asp?AID=520301 }}</ref> Many medications are used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails.<ref name=Rapin/><ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Harv Rev Psychiatry |year=2008 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=97–112 |title=Pharmacological treatment options for autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents |author=Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM, Findling RL |doi=10.1080/10673220802075852 |pmid=18415882 }}</ref> More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed [[psychoactive drug]]s or [[anticonvulsant]]s, with the most common drug classes being [[antidepressant]]s, [[stimulant]]s, and [[antipsychotic]]s.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol |year=2007 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=348–55 |title=Medication use among children with autism spectrum disorders |author=Oswald DP, Sonenklar NA |doi=10.1089/cap.2006.17303 |pmid=17630868 }}</ref> Aside from antipsychotics,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Clin Invest |year=2008 |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=6–14 |title=Antipsychotics in the treatment of autism |author=Posey DJ, Stigler KA, Erickson CA, McDougle CJ |doi=10.1172/JCI32483 |pmid=18172517 |pmc=2171144 |url=http://www.jci.org/articles/view/32483/version/1 }}</ref> Both aripiprazole and risperidone are effective for treating irritability in children with autistic disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ghanizadeh|first=A|author2=Sahraeizadeh A|author3=Berk M|title=A Head-to-Head Comparison of Aripiprazole and Risperidone for Safety and Treating Autistic Disorders, a Randomized Double Blind Clinical Trial|journal=Child Psychiatry Hum Dev|year=2013|pmid=23801256|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23801256|doi=10.1007/s10578-013-0390-x}}</ref> there is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD.<ref>Lack of research on drug treatments: * {{vcite journal |journal=Aust Fam Physician |year=2007 |volume=36 |issue=9 |pages=741–4 |title=Children and autism—part 1—recognition and pharmacological management |author=Angley M, Young R, Ellis D, Chan W, McKinnon R |pmid=17915375 |url=http://www.racgp.org.au/afp/200709/200709angley.pdf |format=PDF }} * {{vcite journal |journal=Autism |year=2007 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=335–48 |title=Systematic review of the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments for adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder |author=Broadstock M, Doughty C, Eggleston M |doi=10.1177/1362361307078132 |pmid=17656398 }}</ref> A person with ASD may respond atypically to medications, the medications can have [[Adverse effect (medicine)|adverse effects]],<ref name=CCD/> and no known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Novartis Found Symp |year=2003 |volume=251 |pages=235–44; discussion 245–9, 281–97 |title=Why have drug treatments been so disappointing? |title.= |author=Buitelaar JK |doi=10.1002/0470869380.ch14 |pmid=14521196 }}</ref> Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function,<ref name=Walsh/><ref name="pmid18093519"/> suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.<ref name=Betancur/><ref name="pmid20303363">{{vcite journal |author = Dölen G, Carpenter RL, Ocain TD, Bear MF | title = Mechanism-based approaches to treating fragile X | journal = Pharmacol Ther | volume = 127 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–93| year = 2010 | pmid = 20303363 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.02.008}}</ref> Although many [[Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities|alternative therapies and interventions]] are available, few are supported by scientific studies.<ref name=Sigman/><ref>Lack of support for interventions: * {{vcite journal |journal=Dev Med Child Neurol |year=2005 |volume=47 |issue=7 |pages=493–9 |title=Autism interventions: a critical update |author=Francis K |doi=10.1017/S0012162205000952 |pmid=15991872 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=313204 |format=PDF }} * {{vcite journal |author=Levy SE, Hyman SL |title=Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=803–20, ix |year=2008 |pmid=18775371 |pmc=2597185 |doi=10.1016/j.chc.2008.06.004 }} * {{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2008 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=353–61 |title=Social skills interventions for children with Asperger's syndrome or high-functioning autism: a review and recommendations |author=Rao PA, Beidel DC, Murray MJ |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0402-4 |pmid=17641962 }} </ref> Treatment approaches have little empirical support in [[Quality of life|quality-of-life]] contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance.<ref name=Burgess/> Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl |year=2005 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=66–79 |title=Early intervention practices for children with autism: descriptions from community providers |author=Stahmer AC, Collings NM, Palinkas LA |pmid=16467905 |pmc=1350798 |doi=10.1177/10883576050200020301 }}</ref> Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. A 2008 study found that compared to their peers, autistic boys have significantly thinner bones if on [[casein-free diet]]s;<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2008 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=848–56 |title=Reduced bone cortical thickness in boys with autism or autism spectrum disorder |author=Hediger ML, England LJ, Molloy CA, Yu KF, Manning-Courtney P, Mills JL |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0453-6 |pmid=17879151 |laysummary=http://www.nih.gov/news/health/jan2008/nichd-29.htm |laysource=NIH News |laydate=29 January 2008 }}</ref> in 2005, botched [[chelation therapy]] killed a five-year-old child with autism.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2006 |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=e534–6 |title=Deaths resulting from hypocalcemia after administration of edetate disodium: 2003–2005 |author=Brown MJ, Willis T, Omalu B, Leiker R |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-0858 |pmid=16882789 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/118/2/e534 }}</ref> Treatment is expensive; indirect costs are more so. For someone born in 2000, a US study estimated an average lifetime cost of ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US|3160384|2003}}}} ([[net present value]] in {{CURRENTYEAR}} dollars, inflation-adjusted from 2003 estimate),{{inflation-fn|US}} with about 10% [[medical care]], 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med |year=2007 |volume=161 |issue=4 |pages=343–9 |title=The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism |author=Ganz ML |pmid=17404130 |url=http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/161/4/343 |laysummary=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/2006-releases/press04252006.html |laysource=Harvard School of Public Health |laydate=25 April 2006 |doi=10.1001/archpedi.161.4.343 }}</ref> Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems;<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Fam Econ Iss |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=247–64 |doi=10.1007/s10834-007-9059-6 |title=Financial issues associated with having a child with autism |author=Sharpe DL, Baker DL }}</ref> one 2008 US study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2008 |volume=121 |issue=4 |pages=e821–6 |title=Association of childhood autism spectrum disorders and loss of family income |author=Montes G, Halterman JS |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-1594 |pmid=18381511 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/121/4/e821 }}</ref> and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that [[child care]] problems will greatly affect parental employment.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatrics |year=2008 |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=e202–8 |title=Child care problems and employment among families with preschool-aged children with autism in the United States |author=Montes G, Halterman JS |doi=10.1542/peds.2007-3037 |pmid=18595965 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/122/1/e202 }}</ref> US states increasingly require private health insurance to cover autism services, shifting costs from publicly funded education programs to privately funded health insurance.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Manag Care |year=2008 |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=35–6, 39 |title=States increasingly mandate special autism services |author=Reinke T |pmid=18777788 |url=http://managedcaremag.com/archives/0808/0808.autism.html }}</ref> After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and [[estate planning]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |year=2005 |volume=66 |issue=Suppl 10 |pages=38–45 |title=Treatment planning for patients with autism spectrum disorders |author=Aman MG |pmid=16401149 }}</ref> ==Prognosis== There is no known cure.<ref name=Levy/><ref name=CCD/> Children recover occasionally, so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD;<ref name=Helt/> this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens;<ref name=Rogers/> reported rates in unselected samples of children with ASD have ranged from 3% to 25%.<ref name=Helt>{{vcite journal |author=Helt M, Kelley E, Kinsbourne M ''et al.'' |author.= |title=Can children with autism recover? if so, how? |title.= |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=339–66 |year=2008 |pmid=19009353 |doi=10.1007/s11065-008-9075-9 }}</ref> Most autistic children can acquire language by age 5 or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Pickett E, Pullara O, O'Grady J, Gordon B |title=Speech acquisition in older nonverbal individuals with autism: a review of features, methods, and prognosis |journal=Cogn Behav Neurol |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19372766 |doi=10.1097/WNN.0b013e318190d185 }}</ref> Most children with autism lack [[social support]], meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]].<ref name=Burgess>{{vcite journal |author=Burgess AF, Gutstein SE |year=2007 |title=Quality of life for people with autism: raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes |journal=Child Adolesc Ment Health |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=80–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-3588.2006.00432.x |url=http://kingwoodpsychology.com/recent_publications/camh_432.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.<ref name=Rapin/> Few high-quality studies address long-term [[prognosis]]. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=234–47 |year=2004 |title=Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism |author=Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20038 |pmid=15666341 }}</ref> Acquiring language before age six, having an [[IQ]] above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; [[independent living]] is unlikely with severe autism.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR |title=Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Can J Psychiatry |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=517–25 |year=2003 |pmid=14574827 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/tidmarsh.asp }}</ref> A 2004 British study of 68 adults who were diagnosed before 1980 as autistic children with IQ above 50 found that 12% achieved a high level of independence as adults, 10% had some friends and were generally in work but required some support, 19% had some independence but were generally living at home and needed considerable support and supervision in daily living, 46% needed specialist residential provision from facilities specializing in ASD with a high level of support and very limited autonomy, and 12% needed high-level hospital care.<ref name=Howlin>{{vcite journal |author=Howlin P, Goode S, Hutton J, Rutter M |title=Adult outcome for children with autism |journal=J Child Psychol Psychiatry |year=2004 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=212–29 |pmid=14982237 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00215.x }}</ref> A 2005 Swedish study of 78 adults that did not exclude low IQ found worse prognosis; for example, only 4% achieved independence.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=351–60 |title=Autism after adolescence: population-based 13- to 22-year follow-up study of 120 individuals with autism diagnosed in childhood |author=Billstedt E, Gillberg C, Gillberg C |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-3302-5 |pmid=16119476 }}</ref> A 2008 Canadian study of 48 young adults diagnosed with ASD as preschoolers found outcomes ranging through poor (46%), fair (32%), good (17%), and very good (4%); 56% of these young adults had been employed at some point during their lives, mostly in volunteer, sheltered or [[part-time]] work.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2008 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=739–47 |title=Young adult outcome of autism spectrum disorders |author=Eaves LC, Ho HH |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0441-x |pmid=17764027 }}</ref> Changes in diagnostic practice and increased availability of effective early intervention make it unclear whether these findings can be generalized to recently diagnosed children.<ref name=Newschaffer/> ==Epidemiology== {{Main|Epidemiology of autism}} [[File:US-autism-6-17-1996-2007.png|thumb|left|alt=Bar chart versus time. The graph rises steadily from 1996 to 2007, from about 0.7 to about 5.3. The trend curves slightly upward.|Reports of autism cases per 1,000 children grew dramatically in the US from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much, if any, growth came from changes in autism's [[prevalence]].]] Most recent [[review]]s tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD,<ref name=Newschaffer>{{vcite journal |author=Newschaffer CJ, Croen LA, Daniels J ''et al.'' |author.= |title=The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Annu Rev Public Health |year=2007 |volume=28 |pages=235–58 |pmid=17367287 |doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144007 |url=http://idea.library.drexel.edu/bitstream/1860/2632/1/2006175339.pdf |format=PDF }}</ref> and 11 per 1,000 children in the United States for ASD as of 2008;<ref name=MMWR2012/><ref name=Duchan >{{vcite journal |author=Duchan E, Patel DR |title=Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal=Pediatr. Clin. North Am. |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=27–43, ix–x |year=2012 |month=February |pmid=22284791 |doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2011.10.003}}</ref> because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true prevalence.<ref name=Caronna/> [[PDD-NOS]]'s prevalence has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and [[childhood disintegrative disorder]] at 0.02 per 1,000.<ref name=Fombonne-2009>{{vcite journal |author=Fombonne E |title=Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders |journal=Pediatr Res |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=591–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19218885 |doi=10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7203 }}</ref> The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness,<ref name=Fombonne-2009/><ref>{{vcite journal |author=Wing L, Potter D |title=The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? |title.= |journal=Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |volume=8 |issue=3 |year=2002 |pages=151–61 |pmid=12216059 |doi=10.1002/mrdd.10029 }}</ref> though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out.<ref name=Rutter>{{vcite journal |author=Rutter M |title=Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: changes over time and their meaning |journal=Acta Paediatr |volume=94 |issue=1 |year=2005 |pages=2–15 |pmid=15858952 |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2005.tb01779.x }}</ref> The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased;<ref name=Fombonne-2009/> a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.<ref name=Szpir/> Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without.<ref name=Newschaffer/> Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed.<ref name=Chaste/> Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy.<ref name=Chaste/><ref>{{vcite journal |author=Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL |title=Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis |journal=Br J Psychiatry |volume=195 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |year=2009 |pmid=19567888 |doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672 |pmc=3712619}}</ref> The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism.<ref name=Geschwind-2009/> Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Bertoglio K, Hendren RL |title=New developments in autism |journal=Psychiatr Clin North Am |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |year=2009 |pmid=19248913 |doi=10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.004 }}</ref> Several other conditions are common in children with autism.<ref name=Levy/> They include: * '''[[Genetic disorder]]s'''. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable [[Mendelian]] (single-gene) condition, [[chromosome abnormality]], or other genetic syndrome,<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Folstein SE, Rosen-Sheidley B |title=Genetics of autism: complex aetiology for a heterogeneous disorder |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |year=2001 |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=943–55 |doi=10.1038/35103559 |pmid=11733747 }}</ref> and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Brain Dev |year=2007 |volume=29 |issue=5 |pages=257–72 |title=Childhood autism and associated comorbidities |author=Zafeiriou DI, Ververi A, Vargiami E |doi=10.1016/j.braindev.2006.09.003 |pmid=17084999 }}</ref> * '''[[Intellectual disability]]'''. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing autistic intelligence.<ref>{{vcite book |chapter= Learning in autism |author= Dawson M, Mottron L, Gernsbacher MA |title= Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference |volume=2 |pages=759–72 |editor= Byrne JH (ed.-in-chief), Roediger HL III (vol. ed.) |publisher= Academic Press |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/B978-012370509-9.00152-2 |isbn=0-12-370504-5 |chapterurl=http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |accessdate=26 July 2008 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120303191513/http://psych.wisc.edu/lang/pdf/Dawson_AutisticLearning.pdf |archivedate= 3 March 2012}}</ref> In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker,<ref>{{vcite journal |author= Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E |title= Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children |journal=JAMA |year=2001 |volume=285 |issue=24 |pages=3093–9 |pmid=11427137 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/285/24/3093 |doi= 10.1001/jama.285.24.3093}}</ref> and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.<ref>{{cite book | title=DSM-IV-TR Diagnostical and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth edition text revision | publisher=American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC | year=2000 | page=80}}</ref> * '''[[Anxiety disorder]]s''' are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=White SW, Oswald D, Ollendick T, Scahill L |title=Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders |journal=Clin Psychol Rev |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=216–29 |year=2009 |pmid=19223098 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003 |pmc=2692135 }}</ref> * '''[[Epilepsy]]''', with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of [[language disorder]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Pediatr Res |year=2009 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=599–606 |title=The role of epilepsy and epileptiform EEGs in autism spectrum disorders |author=Spence SJ, Schneider MT |doi=10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7168 |pmid=19454962 |pmc=2692092}}</ref> * Several '''[[metabolic defect]]s''', such as [[phenylketonuria]], are associated with autistic symptoms.<ref name=Manzi>{{vcite journal |journal=J Child Neurol |year=2008 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=307–14 |title=Autism and metabolic diseases |author=Manzi B, Loizzo AL, Giana G, Curatolo P |doi=10.1177/0883073807308698 |pmid=18079313 }}</ref> * '''[[Minor physical anomalies]]''' are significantly increased in the autistic population.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Mol Psychiatry |year=2010 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=300–7 |title=Minor physical anomalies in autism: a meta-analysis |author=Ozgen HM, Hop JW, Hox JJ, Beemer FA, van Engeland H |doi=10.1038/mp.2008.75 |pmid=18626481 }}</ref> * '''Preempted diagnoses'''. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]], [[Tourette syndrome]], and other of these conditions are often present and these [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders|comorbid diagnoses]] are increasingly accepted.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Eur J Pediatr |year=2008 |title=What's new in autism? |title.= |author=Steyaert JG, De La Marche W |doi=10.1007/s00431-008-0764-4 |pmid=18597114 |volume=167 |issue=10 |pages=1091–101 }}</ref> * '''Sleep problems''' affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of [[insomnia]] such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent [[middle-of-the-night insomnia|nocturnal awakenings]], and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Richdale AL, Schreck KA |title=Sleep problems in autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, nature, & possible biopsychosocial aetiologies |journal=Sleep Med Rev |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=403–11 |year=2009 |pmid=19398354 |doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2009.02.003 }}</ref> ==History== {{further|History of Asperger syndrome}} [[File:Leo-Kanner.jpeg|thumb|upright|alt=Head and shoulders of a man in his early 60s in coat and tie, facing slightly to his right. He is balding and has a serious but slightly smiling expression.|[[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]] A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The ''[[Table Talk (Luther)|Table Talk]]'' of [[Martin Luther]], compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Autism |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=13–23 |year=1997 |doi=10.1177/1362361397011004 |title=The history of ideas on autism: legends, myths and reality |author=[[Lorna Wing|Wing L]]}}</ref> Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated, although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report.<ref>{{vcite web |author=Miles M |year=2005 |title=Martin Luther and childhood disability in 16th century Germany: what did he write? what did he say? |title.= |publisher=Independent Living Institute |url=http://www.independentliving.org/docs7/miles2005b.html |accessdate=23 December 2008 }}</ref> The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance.<ref>{{vcite book |author=Houston R, Frith U |title=Autism in History: The Case of Hugh Blair of Borgue |year=2000 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=0-631-22089-5 }}</ref> The [[Wild Boy of Aveyron]], a [[feral child]] caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student [[Jean Marc Gaspard Itard|Jean Itard]] treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.<ref name=Wolff>{{vcite journal |journal=Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry |year=2004 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=201–8 |title=The history of autism |author=Wolff S |doi=10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5 |pmid=15365889 }}</ref> The [[New Latin]] word ''autismus'' (English translation ''autism'') was coined by the [[Swiss]] psychiatrist [[Eugen Bleuler]] in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of [[schizophrenia]]. He derived it from the Greek word ''autós'' (αὐτός, meaning ''self''), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance".<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Kuhn R; tr. Cahn CH |title=Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology |journal=Hist Psychiatry |volume=15 |issue=3 |year=2004 |pages=361–6 |doi=10.1177/0957154X04044603 |pmid=15386868 }} The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original.</ref> The word ''autism'' first took its modern sense in 1938 when [[Hans Asperger]] of the [[Vienna General Hospital|Vienna University Hospital]] adopted Bleuler's terminology ''autistic psychopaths'' in a lecture in German about [[child psychology]].<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Wien Klin Wochenschr |year=1938 |volume=51 |pages=1314–7 |trans_title=The psychically abnormal child |author=[[Hans Asperger|Asperger H]] |language=German }}</ref> Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as [[Asperger syndrome]], though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981.<ref name=Wolff/> [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] first used ''autism'' in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities.<ref name=Kanner1943>{{vcite journal |author=[[Leo Kanner|Kanner L]] |title=Autistic disturbances of affective contact |journal=Nerv Child |volume=2 |pages=217–50 |year=1943 }} Reprinted in {{vcite journal |year=1968 |journal=Acta Paedopsychiatr |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=100–36 |pmid=4880460 |author=<!-- Pacify Citation bot. --> |title=<!-- Pacify Citation bot. --> }}</ref> Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.<ref name=HappeTime/> It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.<ref name=Lyons>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2007 |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=2022–3 |title=Asperger (1906–1980) and Kanner (1894–1981), the two pioneers of autism |author=Lyons V, Fitzgerald M |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0383-3 |pmid=17922179 }}</ref> Kanner's reuse of ''autism'' led to decades of confused terminology like ''infantile schizophrenia'', and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "[[refrigerator mother]]s". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome by demonstrating that it is lifelong, distinguishing it from intellectual disability and schizophrenia and from other developmental disorders, and demonstrating the benefits of involving parents in active programs of therapy.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=Can J Psychiatry |year=2003 |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=503–5 |title=Modern views of autism |author=Fombonne E |pmid=14574825 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/guesteditorial.asp }}</ref> As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; now it is thought to be one of the most heritable of all psychiatric conditions.<ref>{{vcite book |chapter=Genetic epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |author=[[Peter Szatmari|Szatmari P]], Jones MB |pages=157–78 |title=Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders |edition=2nd |editor=Volkmar FR |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=0-521-54957-4 }}</ref> Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have deeply affected how we view ASD,<ref name=Wolff/> parents continue to feel [[social stigma]] in situations where their autistic children's behaviors are perceived negatively by others,<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2008 |title=Adult attitudes toward behaviors of a six-year-old boy with autism |author=Chambres P, Auxiette C, Vansingle C, Gil S |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0519-5 |pmid=18297387 |volume=38 |issue=7 |pages=1320–7 }}</ref> and many [[primary care physician]]s and [[medical specialist]]s still express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.<ref>{{vcite journal |journal=J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=323–30 |title=A survey of autism knowledge in a health care setting |author=Heidgerken AD, Geffken G, Modi A, Frakey L |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-3298-x |pmid=16119473 }}</ref> The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find so hard to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely.<ref>{{vcite journal |author=Biever C |title=Web removes social barriers for those with autism |journal=New Sci |issue=2610 |pages=26–7 |date=2007 |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19426106.100 }}</ref> [[Sociological and cultural aspects of autism]] have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that [[Neurodiversity|autism is simply another way of being]].<ref name=Silverman>{{vcite journal |journal=Biosocieties |year=2008 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=325–41 |title=Fieldwork on another planet: social science perspectives on the autism spectrum |author=Silverman C |doi=10.1017/S1745855208006236 }}</ref><ref>{{vcite news |author=Harmon A |title=How about not 'curing' us, some autistics are pleading |date=20 December 2004 |work=The New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/20/health/20autism.html }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|30em}} ==External links== {{sisterlinks|d=Q38404|s=no|n=Category:Autism|wikt=autism|species=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|q=no|v=no}} * {{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Neurodevelopmental/Autism_Spectrum}} {{featured article}} {{Pervasive developmental disorders}} {{Mental and behavioural disorders|selected = childhood}} {{Autism resources}} {{Autism films}} {{Portal bar|Pervasive Developmental Disorders}} [[Category:Autism| ]] [[Category:Communication disorders]] [[Category:Mental and behavioural disorders]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[Category:Neurological disorders in children]] [[Category:Pervasive developmental disorders]] [[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]] {{Link GA|lt}} {{Link FA|eu}} {{Link FA|bs}} {{Link FA|hr}} hfozr558s2gkbvzibtju9wt136euciy wikitext text/x-wiki 0 27 74467016 15898960 2006-09-08T04:18:56Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] {{R from 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part of a citrus fruit|Mesocarp}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Albedo-e hg.svg|thumb|Percentage of diffusely reflected sunlight in relation to various surface conditions]] '''Albedo''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|l|ˈ|b|iː|d|oʊ}}), or ''reflection coefficient'', derived from [[Latin]] ''albedo'' "whiteness" (or reflected sunlight) in turn from ''albus'' "white," is the [[diffuse reflection|diffuse reflectivity]] or reflecting power of a surface. It is the ratio of reflected radiation from the surface to incident radiation upon it. Its [[Dimensionless number|dimensionless]] nature lets it be expressed as a percentage and is measured on a scale from zero for no reflection of a perfectly black surface to 1 for perfect reflection of a white surface. Albedo depends on the [[frequency]] of the radiation. When quoted unqualified, it usually refers to some appropriate average across the spectrum of [[visible light]]. In general, the albedo depends on the directional distribution of incident radiation, except for [[Lambertian reflectance|Lambertian surfaces]], which scatter radiation in all directions according to a cosine function and therefore have an albedo that is independent of the incident distribution. In practice, a [[bidirectional reflectance distribution function]] (BRDF) may be required to accurately characterize the scattering properties of a surface, but albedo is very useful as a first approximation. The albedo is an important concept in [[climatology]], [[astronomy]], and calculating [[reflectivity]] of surfaces in [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] sustainable-rating systems for buildings. The average overall albedo of Earth, its ''planetary albedo'', is 30 to 35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features.<ref>Environmental Encyclopedia, 3rd ed., Thompson Gale, 2003, ISBN 0-7876-5486-8</ref> The term was introduced into optics by [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] in his 1760 work ''[[Photometria]]''. ==Terrestrial albedo== {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px" |+ Sample albedos |- ! Surface ! Typical<br>albedo |- | Fresh asphalt || 0.04<ref name="heat island">{{cite web | last=Pon | first=Brian | date=30 June 1999 | url=http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/Albedo/ | title=Pavement Albedo | publisher=Heat Island Group | accessdate=27 August 2007 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070829153207/http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/Albedo/| archivedate= 29 August 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> |- | Worn asphalt || 0.12<ref name="heat island"/> |- | Conifer forest<br>(Summer) || 0.08,<ref name="Betts 1">{{Cite journal | author=Alan K. Betts, John H. Ball | title=Albedo over the boreal forest | journal=Journal of Geophysical | year=1997 | volume=102 | issue=D24 | pages=28,901–28,910 | url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1997/96JD03876.shtml | accessdate=27 August 2007 | doi=10.1029/96JD03876 |bibcode = 1997JGR...10228901B | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070930184719/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1997/96JD03876.shtml| archivedate= 30 September 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> 0.09 to 0.15<ref name="mmutrees"/> |- | [[Deciduous trees]] || 0.15 to 0.18<ref name="mmutrees"/> |- | Bare soil || 0.17<ref name="markvart">{{Cite book | author=Tom Markvart, Luis CastaŁżer | year=2003 | title=Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications | publisher=Elsevier | isbn=1-85617-390-9 }}</ref> |- | Green grass || 0.25<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Desert sand || 0.40<ref name="Tetzlaff">{{Cite book | first=G. | last=Tetzlaff | year=1983 | title=Albedo of the Sahara | work=Cologne University Satellite Measurement of Radiation Budget Parameters | pages=60–63 }}</ref> |- | New concrete || 0.55<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Ocean ice|| 0.5–0.7<ref name="markvart"/> |- | Fresh snow || 0.80–0.90<ref name="markvart"/> |} Albedos of typical materials in visible light range from up to 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a [[black body]]. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4.<ref name="PhysicsWorld">{{cite web|url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Albedo.html |title=Albedo - from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics |publisher=Scienceworld.wolfram.com |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> The average albedo of the [[Earth]] is about 0.3.<ref name="Goode"/> This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. [[File:Ceres 2003 2004 clear sky total sky albedo.png|thumb|200px|left|2003–2004 mean annual clear-sky and total-sky albedo]] Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via [[Earth observation]] satellite sensors such as [[NASA]]'s [[MODIS]] instruments on board the [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] and [[Aqua (satellite)|Aqua]] satellites. As the total amount of reflected radiation cannot be directly measured by satellite, a [[mathematical model]] of the BRDF is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of [[directional-hemispherical reflectance]] and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.<ref name="NASA"/>). Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the [[greenhouse effect]] is currently about 15&nbsp;°C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective) the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40&nbsp;°C.<ref name="washington" /> If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0&nbsp;°C.<ref name="clim-past"/> In contrast, if the entire Earth is covered by water—a so-called aquaplanet—the average temperature on the planet would rise to just under 27&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Smith Robin"/> ===White-sky and black-sky albedo=== It has been shown that for many applications involving terrestrial albedo, the albedo at a particular [[solar zenith angle]] ''θ''_''i'' can reasonably be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, <math>{\bar \alpha(\theta_i)}</math>, and the bi-hemispherical reflectance, <math>\bar{ \bar \alpha}</math> the proportion concerned being defined as the proportion of diffuse illumination <math>{D}</math>. Albedo <math>{\alpha}</math> can then be given as: :<math>{\alpha}= (1-D) \bar \alpha(\theta_i) + D \bar{ \bar \alpha}.</math> [[Directional-hemispherical reflectance]] is sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo and [[bi-hemispherical reflectance]] as white-sky albedo. These terms are important because they allow the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.<ref name="BlueskyAlbedo"/> ==Astronomical albedo== The albedos of [[planet]]s, [[Natural satellite|satellites]] and [[asteroid]]s can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of [[photometry (astronomy)|photometry]]. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer [[Solar System]] objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about [[regolith]] properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in [[asteroid]]s. [[Enceladus (moon)|Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is [[Eris (dwarf planet)|Eris]], with an albedo of 0.96.<ref name="sicardy"> {{cite journal | title = Size, density, albedo and atmosphere limit of dwarf planet Eris from a stellar occultation | journal = European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts | volume = 6 | year = 2011 | url = http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC-DPS2011/EPSC-DPS2011-137-8.pdf | accessdate = 14 September 2011 | bibcode = 2011epsc.conf..137S | author1 = Sicardy | first1 = B. | last2 = Ortiz | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Assafin | first3 = M. | last4 = Jehin | first4 = E. | last5 = Maury | first5 = A. | last6 = Lellouch | first6 = E. | last7 = Gil-Hutton | first7 = R. | last8 = Braga-Ribas | first8 = F. | last9 = Colas | first9 = F. | displayauthors=8 | pages = 137 }} </ref> Many small objects in the outer Solar System<ref name="tnoalbedo">{{cite web |date=17 September 2008 |title=TNO/Centaur diameters and albedos |publisher=Johnston's Archive |author=Wm. Robert Johnston |url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnodiam.html |accessdate=17 October 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081022223827/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnodiam.html| archivedate= 22 October 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> and [[asteroid belt]] have low albedos down to about 0.05.<ref name="astalbedo">{{cite web |date=28 June 2003 |title=Asteroid albedos: graphs of data |publisher=Johnston's Archive |author=Wm. Robert Johnston |url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astalbedo.html |accessdate=16 June 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080517100307/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astalbedo.html| archivedate= 17 May 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> A typical [[comet nucleus]] has an albedo of 0.04.<ref name="dark">{{cite web |date=29 November 2001 |title=Comet Borrelly Puzzle: Darkest Object in the Solar System |publisher=Space.com |author=Robert Roy Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html |accessdate=1 September 2012| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090122074028/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html| archivedate= 22 January 2009}}</ref> Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily [[space weathering|space weathered]] surface containing some [[organic compound]]s. The overall albedo of the [[Moon]] is around 0.12, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong [[opposition effect]].<ref name="medkeff" /> Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the [[regolith]] surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) [[geometric albedo]] (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the [[Bond albedo]] (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five [[Hapke parameters]] which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], including a characterization of the opposition effect of [[regolith]] surfaces. The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, [[Absolute magnitude#Absolute magnitude for planets (H)|absolute magnitude]] and diameter is:<ref name="bruton">{{cite web |title=Conversion of Absolute Magnitude to Diameter for Minor Planets |publisher=Department of Physics & Astronomy (Stephen F. Austin State University) |author=Dan Bruton |url=http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/asteroids/sizemagnitude.html |accessdate=7 October 2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081210190134/http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/asteroids/sizemagnitude.html| archivedate= 10 December 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <math>A =\left ( \frac{1329\times10^{-H/5}}{D} \right ) ^2</math>, where <math>A</math> is the astronomical albedo, <math>D</math> is the diameter in kilometers, and <math>H</math> is the absolute magnitude. ==Examples of terrestrial albedo effects== ===Illumination=== Although the albedo–temperature effect is best known in colder, whiter regions on Earth, the maximum albedo is actually found in the tropics where year-round illumination is greater. The maximum is additionally in the northern hemisphere, varying between three and twelve degrees north.<ref name=Winston>{{cite journal| first=Jay |last=Winston |title=The Annual Course of Zonal Mean Albedo as Derived From ESSA 3 and 5 Digitized Picture Data |journal=Monthly Weather Review |volume=99 |pages=818–827| bibcode=1971MWRv...99..818W| year=1971| doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1971)099<0818:TACOZM>2.3.CO;2| issue=11}}</ref> The minima are found in the subtropical regions of the northern and southern hemispheres, beyond which albedo increases without respect to illumination.<ref name=Winston/> ===Insolation effects === The intensity of albedo temperature effects depend on the amount of albedo and the level of local [[insolation]]; high albedo areas in the [[arctic]] and [[antarctic]] regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the [[Sahara Desert]], which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. [[Tropical]] and [[sub-tropical]] [[rain forest]] areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their [[temperate forest]] counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. {{citation needed|date=November 2013}} ===Climate and weather=== Albedo affects [[climate]] and drives [[weather]]. All weather is a result of the uneven heating of Earth caused by different areas of the planet having different albedos. Essentially, for the driving of weather, there are two types of albedo regions on Earth: Land and ocean. Land and ocean regions produce the four basic different types of [[air masses]], depending on latitude and therefore [[insolation]]: Warm and dry, which form over tropical and sub-tropical land masses; warm and wet, which form over tropical and sub-tropical oceans; cold and dry which form over temperate, polar and sub-polar land masses; and cold and wet, which form over temperate, polar and sub-polar oceans. Different temperatures between the air masses result in different air pressures, and the masses develop into [[pressure systems]]. High pressure systems flow toward lower pressure, driving weather from north to south in the northern hemisphere, and south to north in the lower; however due to the spinning of Earth, the [[Coriolis effect]] further complicates flow and creates several weather/climate bands and the [[jet stream]]s. ===Albedo–temperature feedback=== When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature [[feedback]] results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g. a warm [[air mass]]), the lowered albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local [[weather]] is dynamic due to the change of [[seasons]], eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher [[insolation]]) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus increasing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. ===Small-scale effects=== Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.<ref name="ranknfile-ue">{{cite web|url=http://www.ranknfile-ue.org/h&s0897.html |title=Health and Safety: Be Cool! (August 1997) |publisher=Ranknfile-ue.org |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> === Solar photovoltaic effects === Albedo can affect the [[electrical energy]] output of solar [[photovoltaic system|photovoltaic device]]s (PV). For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar PV technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%.<ref>Rob W. Andrews and Joshua M. Pearce, [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.01.030 The effect of spectral albedo on amorphous silicon and crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic device performance], ''Solar Energy'', '''91''',233–241 (2013). DOI:10.1016/j.solener.2013.01.030 [http://www.academia.edu/3081684/The_effect_of_spectral_albedo_on_amorphous_silicon_and_crystalline_silicon_solar_photovoltaic_device_performance open access]</ref> More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven PV materials covering three common PV system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.<ref>M.P. Brennan, A.L. Abramase, R.W. Andrews, [[J. M. Pearce]], [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2014.01.046 Effects of spectral albedo on solar photovoltaic devices], ''Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells'', 124, pp. 111-116,(2014). DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2014.01.046.</ref> ===Trees=== Because forests are generally attributed a low albedo, (as the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through [[photosynthesis]]), it has been erroneously assumed that removing forests would lead to cooling on the grounds of increased albedo. Through the [[evapotranspiration]] of water, trees discharge excess heat from the forest canopy. This water vapour rises resulting in [[cloud cover]] which also has a high albedo, thereby further increasing the net global cooling effect attributable to forests.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}} In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. [[Deciduous trees]] have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas [[coniferous trees]] have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15.<ref name="mmutrees" /> Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.<ref name="Betts" /> ===Snow=== Snow albedos can be as high as 0.9; this, however, is for the ideal example: fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape. Over [[Antarctica]] they average a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt (the ice-albedo [[positive feedback]]). [[Cryoconite]], powdery windblown [[dust]] containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.<ref name = "Nat. Geo">[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/06/melt-zone/jenkins-text/3 "Changing Greenland - Melt Zone"] page 3, of 4, article by Mark Jenkins in ''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'' June 2010, accessed 8 July 2010</ref> ===Water=== Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the [[Fresnel equations]] (see graph). [[File:water reflectivity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Reflectivity of smooth water at 20&nbsp;°C (refractive index=1.333)]] At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally [[specular reflection|specular manner]] (not [[Diffuse reflection|diffusely]]). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small [[angle of incidence|angles of incident]] light, [[waviness]] results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.<ref name="Fresnel" /> Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the [[terminator (solar)|terminator]] (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh ‘black’ ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. ===Clouds=== [[Cloud albedo]] has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."<ref name="livescience">{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/environment/060124_earth_albedo.html |title=Baffled Scientists Say Less Sunlight Reaching Earth |publisher=LiveScience |date=24 January 2006 |accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref> Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]]s of heavy commercial airliner traffic.<ref name="uww" /> A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10&nbsp;°C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.<ref name="harvard">{{cite journal |title=The Kuwait oil fires as seen by Landsat |publisher=Adsabs.harvard.edu |date=30 May 1991|bibcode=1992JGR....9714565C |author1=Cahalan |first1=Robert F. |volume=97 |pages=14565 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |doi=10.1029/92JD00799}}</ref> ===Aerosol effects=== [[Aerosols]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain.<ref name="girda">{{cite web|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671 |title=Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |publisher=Grida.no |accessdate=19 August 2011| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110629175429/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm| archivedate= 29 June 2011<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> As per <ref name="DOMINICK" /> the effects are: <blockquote> <!-- Aerosol radiative forcing. --> * ''Aerosol direct effect.'' Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. * ''Aerosol indirect effect.'' Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called [[cloud condensation nuclei]]. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (''first indirect effect''), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (''second indirect effect''). </blockquote> ===Black carbon=== Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from [[black carbon]] particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m⁻², with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m⁻².<ref name="girda 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm |title=Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |publisher=Grida.no |accessdate=19 August 2011| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110629180154/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm| archivedate= 29 June 2011<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.<ref>James Hansen & Larissa Nazarenko, ''Soot Climate Forcing Via Snow and Ice Albedos'', 101 Proc. of the Nat'l. Acad. of Sci. 423 (13 January 2004) ("The efficacy of this forcing is »2 (i.e. for a given forcing it is twice as effective as CO₂ in altering global surface air temperature)"); ''compare'' Zender Testimony, ''supra'' note 7, at 4 (figure 3); See J. Hansen & L. Nazarenko, ''supra'' note 18, at 426. ("The efficacy for changes of Arctic sea ice albedo is >3. In additional runs not shown here, we found that the efficacy of albedo changes in Antarctica is also >3."); ''See also'' Flanner, M.G., C.S. Zender, J.T. Randerson, and P.J. Rasch, ''Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow'', 112 J. GEOPHYS. RES. D11202 (2007) ("The forcing is maximum coincidentally with snowmelt onset, triggering strong snow-albedo feedback in local springtime. Consequently, the "efficacy" of black carbon/snow forcing is more than three times greater than forcing by CO₂.").</ref> ===Human activities=== Human activities (e.g. deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} ==Other types of albedo== [[Single-scattering albedo]] is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material ([[refractive index]]); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Cool roof]] * [[Solar radiation management]] * [[Global dimming]] * [[Irradiance]] * [[Polar see-saw]] * [[Daisyworld]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em|refs= <ref name="Goode">{{Cite journal |last=Goode |first=P. R. |authorlink= |author2=''et al.'' |year=2001 |title=Earthshine Observations of the Earth's Reflectance |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=1671–1674 |id= |url=http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2001/2000GL012580.shtml |accessdate= |quote=|doi=10.1029/2000GL012580 |bibcode = 2001GeoRL..28.1671G }}</ref> <ref name="NASA">{{cite web|url=http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/atbd/atbd_mod09.pdf|title=MODIS BRDF/Albedo Product: Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document, Version 5.0|accessdate=2 June 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090601063932/http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/atbd/atbd_mod09.pdf| archivedate= 1 June 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <ref name="washington">{{cite web|url=http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~sgw/PAPERS/2002_Snowball.pdf|title=Snowball Earth: Ice thickness on the tropical ocean|accessdate=20 September 2009}}</ref> <ref name="clim-past">{{cite web|url=http://www.clim-past.net/2/31/2006/cp-2-31-2006.pdf|title=Effect of land albedo, CO2, orography, and oceanic heat transport on extreme climates|accessdate=20 September 2009}}</ref> | first = Jeff | last = Medkeff | authorlink = Jeffrey S. Medkeff | year = 2002 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080523151225/http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm | archivedate = 23 May 2008 | accessdate = 5 July 2010 | postscript = }} </ref> <!-- <ref name="Dickinson">Dickinson, R. E., and P. J. Kennedy, 1992: ''Impacts on regional climate of Amazon deforestation''. Geophys. Res. Lett., '''19''', 1947–1950.</ref> --> <!-- <ref name="mit">[http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/final/characterization/abiotic_water.html http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/final/characterization/abiotic_water.html] Project Amazonia: Characterization - Abiotic - Water</ref> --> <ref name="mmutrees">{{cite web | url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/Resources/gcc/1-3-3.html | title=The Climate System | publisher=Manchester Metropolitan University | accessdate=11 November 2007| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20071121192518/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/resources/gcc/1-3-3.html| archivedate= 21 November 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> <ref name="Betts">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/35041545 | year = 2000 | last1 = Betts | first1 = Richard A. | journal = Nature | volume = 408 | issue = 6809 | pages = 187–190 | pmid = 11089969 | title = Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo }}</ref> <ref name="Fresnel">http://vih.freeshell.org/pp/01-ONW-St.Petersburg/Fresnel.pdf</ref> <ref name="uww">http://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf</ref> <ref name="DOMINICK">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1098/rsta.2008.0201 | title = Boreal forests, aerosols and the impacts on clouds and climate | year = 2008 | last1 = Spracklen | first1 = D. V | last2 = Bonn | first2 = B. | last3 = Carslaw | first3 = K. S | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | volume = 366 | issue = 1885 | pages = 4613–4626 |url=http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~eardvs/papers/spracklen08c.pdf | format = PDF|bibcode = 2008RSPTA.366.4613S | pmid=18826917}}</ref> <ref name="BlueskyAlbedo">{{Cite journal |last=Roman |first=M. O. |authorlink= |coauthors=C.B. Schaaf, P. Lewis, F. Gao, G.P. Anderson, J.L. Privette, A.H. Strahler, C.E. Woodcock, and M. Barnsley |year=2010 |title=Assessing the Coupling between Surface Albedo derived from MODIS and the Fraction of Diffuse Skylight over Spatially-Characterized Landscapes |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |volume=114 |pages=738–760 |id= |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2009.11.014 |accessdate= |quote= |issue=4 }}</ref> }} ==External links== {{wiktionary}} * [http://www.albedo-project.org/ Official Website of Albedo Project] * [http://www-c4.ucsd.edu/gap/ Global Albedo Project (Center for Clouds, Chemistry, and Climate)] * [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Albedo Albedo - Encyclopedia of Earth] * [http://www-modis.bu.edu/brdf/product.html NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site] *[http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/Access_to_Data/Meteosat_Meteorological_Products/Product_List/SP_1125489019643?l=en Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations] * [http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm A discussion of Lunar albedos] * [http://www.tvu.com/metalreflectivityLR.jpg reflectivity of metals (chart)] {{Global warming}} [[Category:Climate forcing]] [[Category:Climatology]] [[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]] [[Category:Radiometry]] [[Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)]] [[Category:Radiation]] 12n67yi22yhe807z0bbf49nwv3pl54c wikitext text/x-wiki 0 40 308571542 74467202 2009-08-17T23:21:19Z DarknessBot 3145267 Fixing identified double redirect #REDIRECT [[Afroasiatic languages]] {{R from CamelCase}} 52vi8qw6s9wx2s1vwlbld4qn0zb0lxz wikitext text/x-wiki 0 42 598474108 597922864 2014-03-06T23:34:01Z Paine Ellsworth 9092818 add [[WP:RCAT|Rcat]] #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{Redr|move|from misspelling|p2=<small>''(see also)''</small> [[Artificial language]]s|from CamelCase}} fsdsc0g9g60uv44vqzqu46bqbjgbzs2 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 46 46448989 15898973 2006-04-01T12:10:40Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[Abacus]] {{R from CamelCase}} dauf3wqco7dh05mx4p39rsbkns2yee0 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 47 46449028 15898974 2006-04-01T12:11:10Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[Abalone]] {{R from CamelCase}} tti8rw1sjqexa6nz32pst88k2mgl2x6 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 48 504162108 46449054 2012-07-25T20:09:33Z AvicBot 11952314 Robot: Fixing double redirect to [[Abbadid dynasty]] #REDIRECT [[Abbadid dynasty]] {{R from CamelCase}} tlsbxtg1doo0yb5lbqtqzuahnstez5k wikitext text/x-wiki 0 49 46449096 15898976 2006-04-01T12:12:10Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[Abbess]] {{R from CamelCase}} fmfk64k56drq5f8daco9ip1nmt3qobf wikitext text/x-wiki 0 50 382192358 372790875 2010-09-01T01:37:06Z Mclay1 1915689 already in sub-cat #REDIRECT [[Abbeville]] {{R from CamelCase}} 14auongd2rt10ec7otrh0z185ipnnmz wikitext text/x-wiki 0 51 46449123 15898978 2006-04-01T12:12:39Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[Abbey]] {{R from CamelCase}} ai3bkh98pkatrdda3w9q8sy4l9hgb1o wikitext text/x-wiki 0 52 46449145 15898979 2006-04-01T12:13:02Z Gurch 241822 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[Abbot]] {{R from CamelCase}} 2hlgxp6evd74hpssh54v6axs3xbhziv wikitext text/x-wiki 0 53 74467345 15898980 2006-09-08T04:21:35Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[Abbreviation]] {{R from plural}} 506whhqvb3qz3zkaxnf1jgm0xyv17ym wikitext text/x-wiki 0 54 74467386 15898981 2006-09-08T04:21:52Z Rory096 750223 can rd #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] {{R from CamelCase}} dmgyvg5hvhktpxepsqmzmw9eo93s6to wikitext text/x-wiki 0 56 364461663 39218442 2010-05-27T10:49:33Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{R from CamelCase}} jemupiz6j3kdszew8fkhq53qriz948w wikitext text/x-wiki 0 58 346112496 235224523 2010-02-24T16:34:51Z Neelix 1169106 [[WP:AES|←]]Redirected page to [[List of Atlas Shrugged characters]] #REDIRECT [[List of Atlas Shrugged characters]] {{R from CamelCase}} 0315tw495mvfw6rly3mc9695ckpdgmv wikitext text/x-wiki 0 59 74466244 46013242 2006-09-08T04:12:37Z Rory096 750223 cat rd #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] {{R from CamelCase}} 9y4gz0l2dwj48qzvflf5jzjlyxtho1b wikitext text/x-wiki 0 60 74467467 74467441 2006-09-08T04:22:33Z Rory096 750223 fix #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] {{R from CamelCase}} {{R from phrase}} rbfotal4dqrib0j7x7co9nid8hbmv74 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 241 250311742 250311496 2008-11-07T21:10:24Z Jamesontai 2819764 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/12.185.231.146|12.185.231.146]] to last version by Rory096 ([[WP:HG|HG]]) #REDIRECT [[African American]] {{R from CamelCase}} 2bxmae0cqcqi55g90lleymdwqiq9s80 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 242 234930509 234927829 2008-08-29T05:11:22Z Seba5618 2155335 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/75.111.240.218|75.111.240.218]] identified as [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] to last revision by [[User:Rory096|Rory096]]. 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It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter [[alpha]], from which it derives. The upper-case version consists of two more or less vertical lines, joined at the top, and crossed in their middle by a horizontal bar. ==History== The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is [[aleph]] (also called 'aleph), the first letter of the [[Phoenician alphabet]]<ref name="Britannica"/> (which, by consisting entirely of [[consonant]]s, is an [[abjad]] rather than a true [[alphabet]]). In turn, the origin of aleph may have been a [[pictogram]] of an ox head in [[proto-Sinaitic script]]<ref name=Coll>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Hall-Quest|first=Olga Wilbourne|editor-first=Bernard|editor-last=Johnston|encyclopedia=Collier's Encyclopedia |title=A |edition=First |year=1997|publisher=P.F. Collier|volume=I A to Ameland|location=New York, NY|pages=1}}</ref> influenced by [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. {| class="wikitable" |- style="background-color:#EEEEEE; text-align:center;" ! Egyptian{{ns|2}} ! Cretan ! Phoenician <br>''[[aleph]]'' ! Semitic <br> ! Greek <br>''[[Alpha]]'' ! Etruscan <br>A ! Roman/Cyrillic <br>A ! Boeotian<br> 800–700 BC ! Greek <br> Uncial ! Latin 300 AD <br> Uncial |- style="background-color:white; text-align:center;" | [[File:EgyptianA-01.svg|Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head]] | [[File:Cretan-1.jpg|35px|Early Crete version of the letter "A"]] | [[File:PhoenicianA-01.svg|40px|Phoenician aleph]] | [[File:Semitic-A2.jpg|35px|Semitic letter "A", version 1]] | [[File:Alpha uc lc.svg|45px|Greek alpha, version 1]] | [[File:EtruscanA.svg|30px|Etruscan A, version 1]] | [[File:RomanA-01.svg|30px|Roman A]] | [[File:Beoetian2.jpg|35px|Boeotian]] | [[File:Greek-uncial-1.jpg|35px|Greek Classical uncial, version 1]] | [[File:Latin-uncial-1.jpg|35px|Latin 300 AD uncial, version 1]] |- style="background-color:white; text-align:center;" | | [[File:Cretan-2.jpg|35px|Crete "A"]] | [[File:Phoenician1a.jpg|35px|Phoenician version of the "A"]] | [[File:Semitic-2.jpg|35px|Semitic "A", version 2]] | [[File:Greek-2.jpg|30px|Greek alpha, version 2]] | [[File:Etr2.jpg|35px|Etruscan A, version 2]] | [[File:Latin 4th cent BC.jpg|35px|Latin 4th century BC]] | [[File:Beoetian.jpg|45px|Boeotioan 800 BC]] | [[File:Greek-uncial-2.jpg|35px|Greek Classical uncial, version 2]] | [[File:Latin-uncial-2.jpg|35px|Latin 300 AD uncial, version 2]] |} In 1600 B.C.E., the Phoenician alphabet's letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] or [[Arabic script|Arabic]] aleph. {| cellspacing="10" cellpadding="0" style="background-color: white; float: right;" |- align="center" |[[File:BlackletterA-01.png|Blackletter A]]<br />[[Blackletter]] A |[[File:UncialA-01.svg|Uncial A]]<br />[[Uncial script|Uncial]] A |[[File:Acap.svg|Another Capital A]]<br />Another Blackletter A&nbsp; |- align="center" |[[File:ModernRomanA-01.svg|64 px|Modern Roman A]]<br />Modern Roman A |[[File:Modern Italic A.svg|64 px|Modern Italic A]]<br />Modern Italic A |[[File:Modern Script A.svg|64 px|Modern Script A]]<br />Modern script A |} When the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the [[glottal stop]]—the first [[phoneme]] of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter, and the sound that the letter denoted in [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and other [[Semitic languages]]—so they used an adaptation of the sign to represent the vowel {{IPA|/a/}}, and gave it the similar name of [[alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the [[Greek Dark Ages]], dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the [[Italian Peninsula]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic script|Etruscan alphabet]] to write the [[Latin|Latin language]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] used to write many languages, including English. ===Typographic variants=== [[File:LowercaseA.svg|right|thumb|200|Typographic variants include a double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''.]] During Roman times, there were many variations on the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" mediums. For perishable surfaces, what was used for everyday or utilitarian purposes, a [[cursive]] style was used. Due to the "perishable" nature of the surfaces, these examples are not as prevalent as the monumental. This perishable style was called cursive and numerous variations have survived, such as [[letter case|majuscule]] cursive, [[letter case|minuscule]] cursive, and semicursive minuscule. There were also variants that were intermediate between the monumental and the cursive. The known variants include the early [[Uncial script#Half-uncial|semi-uncial]], the uncial, and the later semi-uncial.<ref name=Americana/> At the termination of the [[Roman Empire]] (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule appeared through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of [[Italy]], the [[Merovingian script]] in France, the [[Visigothic script]] in Spain, and the [[Insular script|Insular]] or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule, of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the [[Carolingian minuscule|Caroline script]], which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.<ref name=Americana/> 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two variants that are known today. These variants, the ''Italics'' and ''Roman'' forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italics form used in most current [[handwriting]] consists of a circle and vertical stroke ({{Unicode|"ɑ"}}), called [[Latin alpha]] or "script a". This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter [[tau]] in the hands of dark-age Irish and English writers.<ref name="Britannica"/> Most printed material uses the Roman form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it ({{Unicode|"a"}}).<ref name=Americana/> Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. ==Use in English== In [[English orthography]], the letter A currently represents six different vowel sounds: A by itself frequently denotes the [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/æ/}}) as in ''pad''; the [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ɑː/}}) as in ''father'', its original, Latin and Greek, sound;<ref name=Coll/> a closer, further fronted sound as in "hare", which developed as the sound progressed from "father" to "ace";<ref name="Britannica"/> in concert with a later orthographic vowel, the diphthong {{IPA|/eɪ/}} as in ''ace'' and ''major'', due to effects of the [[Great Vowel Shift]]; the more rounded form in "water" or its closely related cousin, found in "was".<ref name="Britannica"/> The double "a" sequence is not a native English combination; however it occurs in some foreign words such as ''Aaron'' and ''aardvark''.<ref name =AAE/> "A" is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after "E" and "T"), and the second most common in Spanish and French. In one study, on average, about 3.68% of letters used in English tend to be 'a', while the number is 6.22% in Spanish and 3.95% in French.<ref name="Trinity College" /> ==Use in other languages== In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, A denotes an open unrounded vowel: {{IPA|/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Open central unrounded vowel|ä]]/}}, or {{IPA|/[[Open back unrounded vowel|ɑ]]/}}. An exception is [[Saanich dialect|Saanich]], in which A (and [[Á]]) stands for a [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|/e/}}. ==Use in mathematics, logic and science== {{main|A (disambiguation)}} In [[algebra]], the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities, whereas the letters at the end of the alphabet (x,y,z) are used to denote unknown quantities. In [[geometry]], capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote [[Line segment|segment]]s, [[line (geometry)|line]]s, [[Line (geometry)#Ray|rays]], etc.<ref name=Americana/> Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a [[triangle]].<ref name=Coll/> In [[logic]], A is used to signify the [[Categorical proposition|universal affirmative]]. In phonetic and phonemic notation: *in the [[help:IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet]], {{IPA|[a]}} is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]], {{IPA|[ä]}} is used for the [[open central unrounded vowel]] and {{IPA|[ɑ]}} is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. *in [[X-SAMPA]], [a] is used for the [[open front unrounded vowel]] and [A] is used for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. ==Other uses== {{main|A (disambiguation)}} "A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; [[A-list]] celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a [[motivation|motivating]] effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.sciencealert.com.au/news/20100903-20689.html |title=Letters affect exam results |date=9 March 2010 |publisher=British Psychological Society |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> A is a common symbol of school and basic phonetics in the US, along with [[B]] and [[C]]. Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe,<ref name=Coll/> or a small cup size in a [[brassiere]]. ==Related letters and other similar characters== [[File:A-small glyphs.svg|thumb|140px|Different [[glyphs]] of the lowercase letter A.]] * Α α : [[Alpha|Greek letter alpha]] * А а : [[A (Cyrillic)|Cyrillic letter A]] * {{Unicode|Ɑ ɑ}} : [[Latin alpha|Latin letter alpha / script A]] * {{Unicode|ɐ}} : a turned lowercase letter A, used by the International Phonetic Alphabet for the [[near-open central vowel]] * {{Unicode|∀}} : a turned capital letter A, used in [[predicate logic]] to specify [[universal quantification]] ("for all") * <big>ª</big> : an [[ordinal indicator]] * Æ æ : [[Æ|Latin ''AE'']] ligature * Å å : [[Å|A letter used in various Scandinavian (and other) languages]] ==Computing codes== {{charmap | 0041 | 0061 | name1 = Latin Capital Letter A | name2 = Latin Small Letter A | map1 = [[EBCDIC]] family | map1char1 = C1 | map1char2 = 81 | map2 = [[ASCII]] ¹ | map2char1 = 41 | map2char2 = 61 }} : ¹ {{midsize|Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.}} ==Other representations== {{Letter other reps |NATO=Alpha<!--don't change to official "alfa" until Commons images are moved to this spelling, or redirects are set up, as otherwise the table does not display the semaphore and flag images--> |Morse=·– |Character=A1 |Braille=⠁ }} ==References== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="OED">"A" (word), ''Oxford English Dictionary,'' 2nd edition, 1989. ''Aes'' is the plural of the name of the letter. The plural of the letter itself is rendered ''A''s, A's, ''a''s, or a's.</ref> <ref name=Americana>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Diringer |first=David |editor-first=Patricia |editor-last=Bayer |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Americana |title=A |edition=First |year=2000 |publisher=Grolier Incorporated |volume=I A-Anjou |location=Danbury, CT |isbn=0-7172-0133-3 |pages=1 }}</ref> <ref name=AAE>{{cite encyclopedia |last1= Gelb |first1=I.J |last2=Whiting |first2=R.M. |editor-first=K. Anne |editor-last=Ranson |encyclopedia=Academic American Encyclopedia| title=A |edition=First |year=1998 |publisher=Grolier Incorporated |volume=I A-Ang |location=Danbury, CT |isbn=0-7172-2068-0 |pages=45 }}</ref> <ref name="Trinity College">[http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/resources/LetFreq.html "Percentages of Letter frequencies per Thousand words"], Trinity College, Retrieved 1 May 2006.</ref> <ref name="Britannica">"A", ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', Volume 1, 1962. p.1.</ref> }} ==External links== {{Commons|A}} {{Wiktionary|A|a}} * [http://members.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionaryclassic/chapters/pix/alphabet.gif History of the Alphabet] * {{Wikisource-inline|list= ** "[[s:A Dictionary of the English Language/A|A]]" in ''[[s:A Dictionary of the English Language|A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]] ** Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/A|"A"]] (entry). ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. ** "[[s:The New Student's Reference Work/A|A]]". ''The New Student's Reference Work''. Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co. 1914. ** "[[s:Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/A|A]]". ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia|Collier's New Encyclopedia]]''. 1921. }} {{Latin alphabet|A|}} [[Category:ISO basic Latin letters]] [[Category:Vowel letters]] {{Link GA|th}} n5ga2j2impn41o4t6t55v6du3oh5w37 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 291 160873567 15899029 2007-09-28T08:10:06Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase #REDIRECT [[Anarcho-capitalism]]{{R from CamelCase}} oz281k4vxl58fpemb6fp7jjmpx48iqc wikitext text/x-wiki 0 293 160873586 15899031 2007-09-28T08:10:15Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase #REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]{{R from CamelCase}} jzf0phnf0o2m0o47hzoyhmk9x8z5k5s wikitext text/x-wiki 0 296 256409318 131986456 2008-12-07T12:34:41Z Addbot 6569922 [[User:Addbot|BOT]]: Fixing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Lists of actors]] {{R from CamelCase}} jqxt1d0v3d7j1ic5rnnsof8007nx2bw wikitext text/x-wiki 0 299 160873704 15899037 2007-09-28T08:11:32Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase #REDIRECT [[An American in Paris]]{{R from CamelCase}} qvannt5snoxgajogiatlpd7zh6zxakl wikitext text/x-wiki 0 301 160873722 15899038 2007-09-28T08:11:44Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase #REDIRECT [[Automorphism]]{{R from CamelCase}} 49yexs3nfabcphgu6px298ghwcukdey wikitext text/x-wiki 0 302 160873735 61398382 2007-09-28T08:11:53Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase #REDIRECT [[Action film]]{{R from CamelCase}} lf6qovyu074danqnski7dafu062csru wikitext text/x-wiki 0 303 602395336 602392262 2014-04-02T09:48:20Z Philip Trueman 3150196 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/222.127.174.3|222.127.174.3]] ([[User talk:222.127.174.3|talk]]) to last version by Ndn59 {{about|the U.S. state||Alabama (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{stack begin}} {{Infobox U.S. state |Name = Alabama |Fullname = State of Alabama |Flag = Flag of Alabama.svg |Flaglink = [[Flag of Alabama|Flag]] |Seal = Seal of Alabama.svg |Seallink = [[Seal of Alabama|Seal]] |Coat of arms = Alabama-COA.png |Coatlink = [[Coat of arms of Alabama|Coat of arms]] |Map = Alabama in United States.svg |Nickname = Yellowhammer State, Heart of [[Dixie]], Cotton State |Demonym = [[Adjectivals and demonyms for U.S. states|Alabamian]]<ref>[http://www.gettysburg.stonesentinels.com/Confederate/AL.php The Alabama monument south of Gettysburg]</ref> |Motto = [[Audemus jura nostra defendere]] ([[Latin]]) |MottoEnglish = We dare defend our rights |Former = Alabama Territory |Capital = [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |OfficialLang = English |Languages = English (96.17%) <br />Spanish (2.12%) |LargestMetro = [[Birmingham-Hoover-Cullman Combined Statistical Area|Greater Birmingham Area]] |LargestCity = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]]<br />212,038 <small>(2012 estimate)</small> |Governor = [[Robert J. Bentley]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) |Lieutenant Governor = [[Kay Ivey]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]) |Legislature = [[Alabama Legislature]] |Upperhouse = [[Alabama Senate|Senate]] R-23, D-11 |Lowerhouse = [[Alabama House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] R-66, D-38 |Senators = [[Richard Shelby]] (R)<br />[[Jeff Sessions]] (R) |Representative = 6 Republicans, 1 Democrat |TradAbbreviation = Ala. |PostalAbbreviation = AL |AreaRank = 30th |TotalArea = 135,765 |TotalAreaUS = 52,419 |LandArea = 131,426 |LandAreaUS = 50,744 |WaterArea = 4,338 |WaterAreaUS = 1,675 |PCWater = 3.20 |PopRank = 23rd |2010Pop = 4,833,722 (2013 est.)<ref name=PopEstUS/> |DensityRank = 27th |2010Density = 36.5 (2011 est.) |2010DensityUS = 94.7 (2011 est.) |MedianHouseholdIncome = $40,489 (2009) |IncomeRank = 46th |AdmittanceOrder = 22nd |AdmittanceDate = December 14, 1819 |TimeZone = [[Central Time Zone (North America)|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[Central Standard Time|-6]]/[[Central Daylight Time|-5]] |TZ1Where = most of state |TimeZone2 = [[Eastern Time Zone (North America)|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] [[Eastern Time Zone|−5]]/[[Eastern Daylight Time|−4]] |TZ2Where = [[Phenix City, Alabama]] area |Latitude = 30° 11′ N to 35° N |Longitude = 84° 53′ W to 88° 28′ W |Width = 305 |WidthUS = 190 |Length = 531 |LengthUS = 330 |LargestCounty = [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin County]] |HighestPoint = [[Mount Cheaha]]<ref>{{cite ngs|id=DG3595|designation= Cheehahaw|accessdate=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html|title=Elevations and Distances in the United States|publisher=United States Geological Survey|year=2001|accessdate=October 21, 2011}}</ref><ref name=NAVD88>Elevation adjusted to [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]].</ref> |HighestElev = 735.5 |HighestElevUS = 2,413 |MeanElev = 150 |MeanElevUS = 500 |LowestPoint = [[Gulf of Mexico]]<ref name=USGS/> |LowestElev = 0 |LowestElevUS = 0 |ISOCode = US-AL |Website = www.Alabama.gov }} {{Infobox U.S. state symbols |Boxwidth= 25em |Flag= Flag of Alabama.svg |Flagsize= 125px |Name= Alabama |Amphibian= [[Red Hills salamander]] |Bird= [[Northern Flicker|Yellowhammer]], [[Wild Turkey]] |Butterfly= [[Eastern Tiger Swallowtail]] |Fish= [[Largemouth bass]], [[Atlantic tarpon|Fighting tarpon]] |Flower= [[Camellia]], [[Hydrangea quercifolia|Oak-leaf Hydrangea]] |Insect= [[Monarch Butterfly]] |Mammal= [[American Black Bear]], [[Racking horse]] |Reptile= [[Alabama red-bellied turtle]] |Tree= [[Longleaf Pine]] |Beverage= [[Conecuh Ridge Whiskey]] |Colors= Red, White |Dance= [[Square Dance]] |Food= [[Pecan]], [[Blackberry]], [[Peach]] |Fossil= [[Basilosaurus]] |Gemstone= [[Star Blue Quartz]] |Mineral= [[Hematite]] |StateRock= [[Marble]] |Shell= [[Johnstone's Junonia]] |Slogan= ''Share The Wonder'',<br />''Alabama the beautiful'',<br />''Where America finds its voice'',<br />''[[Sweet Home Alabama]]'',<br />"[[Heart of Dixie ]]" |Soil= [[Bama (soil)|Bama]] |Song= ''[[Alabama (state song)|Alabama]]'' |Route Marker= Alabama 67.svg |Quarter= 2003 AL Proof.png |QuarterReleaseDate= 2003 }} {{stack end}} '''Alabama''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Alabama.ogg|ˌ|æ|l|ə|ˈ|b|æ|m|ə}}) is a state located in the [[Southern United States|southeastern region]] of the United States. It is bordered by [[Tennessee]] to the north, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the east, Florida and the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to the south, and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|30th-most extensive]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|23rd-most populous]] of the [[List of U.S. states|50 United States]]. At {{convert|1300|mi|km}}, Alabama has one of the longest navigable inland waterways in the nation.<ref name="navwater">{{cite web|url=http://commerce.alabama.gov/content/media/publications/Transportation/TransportationInAlabama.pdf |title=Transportation in Alabama |publisher=Alabama Development Office |accessdate=October 5, 2012}}</ref> From the [[American Civil War]] until World War II, Alabama, like many Southern states, suffered economic hardship, in part because of continued dependence on agriculture. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, [[White American|White]] rural interests dominated the state legislature until the 1960s, while urban interests and African Americans were under-represented.<ref name="pjhwpa">{{cite web|url=http://elections.gmu.edu/Redistricting/AL.htm |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20071017192719/http://elections.gmu.edu/Redistricting/AL.htm |archivedate=October 17, 2007 |title=George Mason University, United States Election Project: Alabama Redistricting Summary. Retrieved March 10, 2008 |publisher=Web.archive.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> African Americans and poor whites were essentially disfranchised in 1901, a status that continued until after 1965. Following World War II, Alabama experienced growth as the economy of the state transitioned from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The establishment or expansion of multiple [[United States Armed Forces]] installations added to the state economy and helped bridge the gap between an agricultural and industrial economy during the mid-20th century. The state economy in the 21st century is dependent on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology.<ref name="alaindustrial">{{cite web |url=http://www2.dir.alabama.gov/projections/Occupational/Proj2018/Statewide/alabama2008_2018.pdf |title=Alabama Occupational Projections 2008-2018 |work=Alabama Department of Industrial Relations |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Alabama is unofficially nicknamed the ''[[Northern Flicker|Yellowhammer]] State'', after the [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]]. Alabama is also known as the "[[Dixie|Heart of Dixie]]". The [[List of U.S. state trees|state tree]] is the [[Longleaf Pine]], and the [[List of U.S. state flowers|state flower]] is the [[Camellia]]. The capital of Alabama is [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The largest city by population is [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]].<ref name="quickcensus">{{cite web |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html |title=Alabama |work=QuickFacts |publisher=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> The largest city by total land area is [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]]. The oldest city is [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], founded by French [[colonists]].<ref name="pelican">{{cite book|last=Thomason|first=Michael|title=Mobile: The New History of Alabama's First City|year=2001|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=0-8173-1065-7|pages=2–21}}</ref> ==Etymology== [[File:Russel Cave Entrance RUCA9323.jpg|thumb|left|One of the entrances to [[Russell Cave National Monument|Russell Cave]] in Jackson County. Charcoal from indigenous camp fires in the cave has been dated as early as 6550 to 6145 BC.]] The [[Alabama people]], a [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean-speaking tribe]] whose members lived just below the confluence of the [[Coosa River|Coosa]] and [[Tallapoosa River|Tallapoosa]] rivers on the upper reaches of the [[Alabama River]],<ref name="Read">{{Cite book|last=Read |first=William A. |title=Indian Place Names in Alabama |year=1984 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=0-8173-0231-X |oclc=10724679 }}</ref> were the origin of later European-American naming of the river and state. In the [[Alabama language]], the word for an Alabama person is ''Albaamo'' (or variously ''Albaama'' or ''Albàamo'' in different dialects; the plural form is ''Albaamaha'').<ref>{{Cite book|author=Sylestine, Cora; Hardy; Heather; and [[Timothy Montler|Montler, Timothy]] |title=Dictionary of the Alabama Language |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin |year=1993 |isbn=0-292-73077-2 |url=http://www.ling.unt.edu/~montler/Alabama/ |oclc=26590560 }}</ref> The word ''Alabama'' is believed to have come from the related [[Choctaw language]]<ref name="Rogers">{{Cite book|last=Rogers |first=William W.|author2=Robert D. Ward|author3=Leah R. Atkins|author4=Wayne Flynt |title=Alabama: the History of a Deep South State |year=1994 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=0-8173-0712-5 |oclc=28634588 }}</ref> and was adopted by the Alabama tribe as their name.<ref name="ADAH1">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/statenam.html |title=Alabama: The State Name |accessdate=August 2, 2007|work=All About Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070628215841/http://www.archives.alabama.gov/statenam.html |archivedate= June 28, 2007 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> The spelling of the word varies significantly among historical sources.<ref name="ADAH1"/> The first usage appears in three accounts of the [[Hernando de Soto]] expedition of 1540 with [[Garcilaso de la Vega (chronicler)|Garcilaso de la Vega]] using ''Alibamo'', while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote ''Alibamu'' and ''Limamu'', respectively, in efforts to [[transliterate]] the term.<ref name="ADAH1"/> As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the ''Alibamon,'' with French maps identifying the river as ''Rivière des Alibamons''.<ref name="Read"/> Other spellings of the appellation have included ''Alibamu'', ''Alabamo'', ''Albama'', ''Alebamon'', ''Alibama'', ''Alibamou'', ''Alabamu'', and ''Allibamou''.<ref name="ADAH1"/><ref name="Wills">{{Cite book|last=Wills |first=Charles A. |title=A Historical Album of Alabama |year=1995 |publisher=The Millbrook Press |isbn=1-56294-591-2 |oclc=32242468 }}</ref><ref name="Griffith">{{Cite book|last=Griffith |first=Lucille |title=Alabama: A Documentary History to 1900|year=1972 |publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=0-8173-0371-5 |oclc=17530914 }}</ref><ref name="Weiss">The use of state names derived from [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]] is common; an estimated 27&nbsp;states have names of Native American origin. {{Cite book|last=Weiss |first=Sonia |title= The Complete Idiot's Guide to Baby Names |year=1999 |publisher=Mcmillan USA |isbn=0-02-863367-9 |oclc=222611214 }}</ref> Sources disagree on the meaning of the word. An 1842 article in the ''Jacksonville Republican'' proposed that it meant "Here We Rest."<ref name="ADAH1"/> This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of [[Alexander Beaufort Meek]].<ref name="ADAH1"/> Experts in the [[Muskogean languages]] have been unable to find any evidence to support such a translation.<ref name="Read"/><ref name="ADAH1"/> Scholars believe the word comes from the Choctaw ''alba'' (meaning "plants" or "weeds") and ''amo'' (meaning "to cut", "to trim", or "to gather").<ref name="Rogers"/><ref name="ADAH1"/><ref name="Swanton1">{{Cite journal|last=Swanton |first=John R. |authorlink=John R. Swanton |year=1953 |title=The Indian Tribes of North America |journal=Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 145 |pages=153–174 |url=http://www.hiddenhistory.com/PAGE3/swsts/alabam-1.htm |accessdate=August 2, 2007 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070804025900/http://www.hiddenhistory.com/PAGE3/swsts/alabam-1.htm |archivedate= August 4, 2007 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> The meaning may have been "clearers of the thicket"<ref name="Rogers"/> or "herb gatherers",<ref name="Swanton1"/><ref name="Swanton2">{{Cite journal|last=Swanton |first=John R. |authorlink=John R. Swanton |year=1937 |title=Review of Read, Indian Place Names of Alabama|journal=American Speech|pages=212–215|issue=12 |doi=10.2307/452431 |volume=12 |jstor=452431}}</ref> referring to clearing land for cultivation<ref name="Wills"/> or collecting medicinal plants.<ref name="Swanton2"/> The state has numerous [[List of place names in Alabama of Native American origin|place names of Native American origin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/tours/Previsit_Indian.pdf |title=Southeastern Indian Place Names in what is now Alabama |year=1994 |work=Indian Place Names in Alabama |author=William A. Read |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=October 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Native American placenames of the United States |last=Bright |first=William |year=2004 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location= |isbn=0-8061-3576-X |pages=29–559 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&pg}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Alabama}} <!---Please insert new material in main article before summarizing here. Also, look for opportunities to delete material here if you are inserting new material. This is long enough.---> ===Pre-European settlement=== [[Indigenous peoples]] of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes via the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period (1000&nbsp;BC–AD&nbsp;700) and continued until [[European colonization of the Americas|European contact]].<ref name="NewYorkTimesAlmanac">{{cite news |url= http://travel2.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/NYT_ALMANAC_US_ALABAMA.html |title= Alabama |date= August 11, 2006 |work= The New York Times Almanac 2004 |accessdate= September 23, 2006 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060926105134/http://travel2.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/NYT_ALMANAC_US_ALABAMA.html |archivedate= September 26, 2006 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> [[File:Moundville Archaeological Site Alabama.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Moundville Archaeological Site]] in Hale County. It was occupied by Native Americans of the [[Mississippian culture]] from 1000 AD to 1450 AD.]] The agrarian [[Mississippian culture]] covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the [[Moundville Archaeological Site]] in [[Moundville, Alabama]].<ref>{{Cite book|last= Welch |first= Paul D. |title= Moundville's Economy |publisher= University of Alabama Press |year= 1991 |isbn= 0-8173-0512-2 |oclc= 21330955 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Walthall |first= John A. |title= Prehistoric Indians of the Southeast-Archaeology of Alabama and the Middle South |publisher= University of Alabama Press |year= 1990 |isbn= 0-8173-0552-1 |oclc= 26656858 }}</ref> Analysis of [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] recovered from [[archaeological]] excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] (SECC).<ref>{{Cite book|last= Townsend |first= Richard F. |title= [[Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand]] |publisher= Yale University Press |year= 2004 |isbn= 0-300-10601-7 |oclc= 56633574 }}</ref> Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to [[Mesoamerica]]n culture, but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.<ref>{{Cite book|editors= F. Kent Reilly and James Garber |title= [[Ancient Objects and Sacred Realms]] |publisher= University of Texas Press |year= 2004 |isbn= 978-0-292-71347-5 |author= edited by F. Kent Reilly III and James F. Garber ; foreword by Vincas P. Steponaitis. |oclc= 70335213 }}</ref> Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in the area of present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the [[Cherokee]], an [[Iroquoian language]] people; and the [[Muskogean]]-speaking [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (''Alibamu''), [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], and [[Koasati]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/alabama/ |title= Alabama Indian Tribes |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |date= Updated 2006 |work= Indian Tribal Records |publisher= AccessGenealogy.com |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20061012073735/http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/alabama/ |archivedate= October 12, 2006 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages. ===European settlement=== With exploration in the 16th century, the Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama. The expedition of [[Hernando de Soto]] passed through [[Mabila]] and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the first European settlement in the region at [[Old Mobile Site|Old Mobile]] in 1702.<ref name="US50">{{cite web|url= http://www.theus50.com/alabama/ |title= Alabama State History |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |publisher= theUS50.com |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060825052401/http://www.theus50.com/alabama/ |archivedate= August 25, 2006 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> The city was moved to the current site of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of [[La Louisiane]].<ref name=alahisttmln/> After the French lost to the British in the [[Seven Years' War]], it became part of British [[West Florida]] from 1763 to 1783. After the United States victory in the [[American Revolutionary War]], the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813.<ref name=alahisttmln>{{cite web|title=Alabama History Timeline|url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/timeline/al1801.html|publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History|accessdate=July 27, 2013}}</ref><ref name="annexed1">{{cite book|last=Thomason|first=Michael|title=Mobile: The New History of Alabama's First City|year=2001|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=0-8173-1065-7|pages=61}}</ref> Thomas Bassett, a [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest White settlers in the state outside of Mobile. He settled in the [[Tombigbee District]] during the early 1770s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.state.al.us/aha/markers/washington.html |title=Alabama Historical Association Marker Program: Washington County |publisher=Archives.state.al.us |accessdate=June 1, 2011}}</ref> The boundaries of the district were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the [[Tombigbee River]] and included portions of what is today southern [[Clarke County, Alabama|Clarke County]], northernmost [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]], and most of [[Washington County, Alabama|Washington County]].<ref name="oldsw">{{cite book |title=The Old Southwest 1795–1830: Frontiers in Conflict |last=Clark |first=Thomas D. |author2=John D. W. Guice |year=1989 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |location=Albuquerque |isbn=0-8061-2836-4 |pages=44–65, 210–257}}</ref><ref name="colonial mobile">{{cite book |title=Colonial Mobile: An Historical Study of the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin and the Old South West from the Discovery of the Spiritu Sancto in 1519 until the Demolition of Fort Charlotte in 1821 |last=Hamilton |first=Peter Joseph |year=1910 |publisher=Hougthon Mifflin |location=Boston |oclc=49073155 |pages=241–244}}</ref> What is now the counties of [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] and [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] became part of [[Spanish West Florida]] in 1783, part of the independent [[Republic of West Florida]] in 1810, and was finally added to the [[Mississippi Territory]] in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the [[Yazoo lands]] beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the [[Province of Georgia]] from 1767 onwards. Following the [[American Revolution|Revolutionary War]], it remained a part of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], although heavily disputed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cadle|first=Farris W|title=Georgia Land Surveying History and Law|year=1991|publisher=University of Georgia Press|location=Athens, Ga.|pages=}}</ref><ref name="pickett">{{cite book|last=Pickett|first=Albert James|title=History of Alabama and incidentally of Georgia and Mississippi, from the earliest period|year=1851|publisher=Walker and James|location=Charleston|pages=408–428}}</ref> [[File:Mississippiterritory.PNG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Map showing the formation of the Mississippi and Alabama territories]] With the exception of the immediate area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the [[Yazoo land scandal]].<ref name="pickett"/><ref>{{cite web|title=The Pine Barrens Speculation and Yazoo Land Fraud|url=http://www.aboutnorthgeorgia.com/ang/The_Pine_Barrens_Speculation_and_Yazoo_Land_Fraud|publisher=About North Georgia|accessdate=July 27, 2013}}</ref> Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.<ref name="annexed1"/> ===19th century=== Prior to the admission of [[Mississippi]] as a state on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the [[Alabama Territory]]. The Alabama Territory was created by the [[United States Congress]] on March 3, 1817. [[St. Stephens, Alabama|St. Stephens]], now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819.<ref name="eoaststephens">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1674 |title=Old St. Stephens |work=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=June 21, 2011}}</ref> The U.S. Congress selected Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention of Alabama after it was approved to become the 22nd state. From July 5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as the temporary capital of Alabama from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of state government was moved to [[Cahaba, Alabama|Cahaba]] in [[Dallas County, Alabama|Dallas County]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Huntsville |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-2498 |work=The Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher= Alabama Humanities Foundation |accessdate=January 22, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Thornhill 01.jpg|thumb|The main house, built in 1833, at [[Thornhill (Forkland, Alabama)|Thornhill]] in Greene County. It is a former [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] plantation.]] Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825.<ref name="Cahaw">{{cite web|title=Old Cahawba, Alabama's first state capital, 1820 to 1826|work=Old Cahawba: A Cahawba Advisory Committee Project|url=http://www.cahawba.com/|accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> [[Alabama Fever]] was already underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation.<ref name="fever">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-3155 |title=Alabama Fever |author=LeeAnna Keith |date=October 13, 2011 |work=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref name="adahtalafvr">{{cite web |url=http://www.alabamaheritage.com/vault/kingcotton.htm |title=Alabama Fever |work=Alabama Department of Archives and History |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref name="alhrtg">{{cite web |url=http://www.alabamaheritage.com/vault/kingcotton.htm |title=King Cotton in Alabama: A Brief History |author=Thomas W. Oliver |date=August 15, 2007 |work=Alabama Heritage |publisher=University of Alabama, et al. |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for White men.<ref name="SSpaces"/> Southeastern planters and traders from the [[Upper South]] brought [[History of slavery in Alabama|slaves]] with them as the cotton [[List of plantations in Alabama|plantations in Alabama]] expanded. The economy of the central [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton [[Plantation complexes in the Southeastern United States|plantations]] whose owners' wealth grew largely from slave labor.<ref name="SSpaces"/> The area also drew many poor, disfranchised people who became [[subsistence farmers]]. Alabama had a population estimated at under 10,000 people in 1810, but it had increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830.<ref name="fever"/> Most Native American tribes were [[Indian removal|completely removed]] from the state within a few years of the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]] by Congress in 1830.<ref name="ala">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1598 |title=Alabama |author=Wayne Flynt |date=July 9, 2008 |work=Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Oldalabamastatecapruinsintuscaloosa.png|thumb|left|Ruins of the former capitol building in Tuscaloosa. Designed by [[William Nichols (architect)|William Nichols]], it was built from 1827–29 and was destroyed by fire in 1923.]] From 1826 to 1846, [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] served as the capital of Alabama. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced that it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847.<ref name="capitols">{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.state.al.us/capital/capitals.html |title=Capitals of Alabama |work=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=July 8, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110716220255/http://www.archives.state.al.us/capital/capitals.html |archivedate= July 16, 2011 |deadurl= no}}</ref> A new capitol building was erected under the direction of [[Stephen Decatur Button]] of [[Philadelphia]]. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of [[Exeter, Maine]].<ref name="alcatalog">{{cite book |last= Gamble |first=Robert|year =1987|title =The Alabama Catalog: A Guide to the Early Architecture of the State|pages=144, 323–324|publisher =University of Alabama Press|location = University, AL|isbn =0-8173-0148-8 }}</ref><ref name="alarchitecture">{{cite book|last =Bowsher|first =Alice Meriwether|year =2001|title =Alabama Architecture|pages=90–91|publisher =University of Alabama Press|location = Tuscaloosa|isbn =0-8173-1081-9 }}</ref> By 1860, the population had increased to a total of 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080 were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were [[free people of color]].<ref name="adahtmln">{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/timeline/al1801.html |title=Alabama History Timeline |work=Alabama Department of Archives and History |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its [[Secession in the United States|secession]] from the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the [[Confederate States of America]]. The Confederacy's capital was initially located at [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. Alabama was heavily [[Alabama in the American Civil War|involved in the American Civil War]]. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. [[File:Huntsville Courthouse Square 1864.jpg|thumb|[[Union Army]] troops occupying Courthouse Square in Huntsville, following its capture and reoccupation by federal forces in 1864.]] A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama joined [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]'s battalion in [[Hopkinsville, Kentucky]]. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coat tails. This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army.<ref>[http://www.archives.state.al.us/emblems/st_bird.html Official Symbols and Emblems of Alabama, State Bird of Alabama, Yellowhammer]. Alabama State Archives</ref> Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865.<ref name="HistDocs">{{cite web|url= http://www.historicaldocuments.com/13thAmendment.htm |title= 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery (1865) |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |year= 2005 |work= Historical Documents |publisher= HistoricalDocuments.com}}</ref> Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most White citizens barred temporarily from voting, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: [[Jeremiah Haralson]], [[Benjamin S. Turner]], and [[James T. Rapier]].<ref name="alrecnstrctn">{{cite web |url=http://www.alabamamoments.state.al.us/sec24.html |title=Reconstruction in Alabama: A Quick Summary |work=Alabama Moments in American History |publisher=Alabama Department of Archives and History |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], state legislators ratified a [[Constitution of Alabama|new state constitution]] in 1868 that created a public school system for the first time and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation.<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> Organized [[insurgent]], resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original [[Ku Klux Klan]], these included the Pale Faces, [[Knights of the White Camellia]], [[Red Shirts (Southern United States)|Red Shirts]], and the [[White League]].<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office. They wrote another constitution in 1875,<ref name="alrecnstrctn"/> and the legislature passed the [[Blaine Amendment]], prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.schoolreport.com/schoolreport/articles/blaine_7_00.htm |title=A Blaine Amendment Update (July 00) |publisher=Schoolreport.com |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110716014339/http://www.schoolreport.com/schoolreport/articles/blaine_7_00.htm |archivedate= July 16, 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> The same year, legislation was approved that called for [[racial segregation|racially segregated]] schools.<ref name="jimcrowala">{{cite web |url=http://www.classroomhelp.com/till/jimcrowlaws/jimcrowalabama.html |title=Jim Crow Laws in Alabama |work=Emmett Till, It All Began with a Whistle |publisher=Classroomhelp |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891.<ref name="jimcrowala"/> More [[Jim Crow laws]] were passed at the beginning of the 20th century to enforce segregation in everyday life. ===20th century=== [[File:Birmingham Alabama skyline 1915.jpg|thumb|left|The developing skyline of Birmingham in 1915]] The new 1901 [[Constitution of Alabama]] included electoral laws that effectively [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchised]] African Americans, Native Americans, and most poor Whites through voting restrictions, including [[Poll tax (United States)|poll taxes]] and [[literacy test]] requirements.<ref>J. Morgan Kousser.''The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974</ref> While the planter class had persuaded poor Whites to support these legislative efforts, the new restrictions resulted in their disfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative [[poll tax]].<ref name="epzzsd"/> In 1900, Alabama had more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote. By 1903, only 2,980 were qualified to register, although at least 74,000 African-American voters were [[literate]].<ref name="epzzsd"/> By 1941, more White Alabamians than African-American residents had been disfranchised: a total of 600,000 Whites to 520,000 African Americans.<ref name="epzzsd">Glenn Feldman. ''The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama''. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, p. 136.</ref> Nearly all African Americans had lost the ability to vote, a situation that persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in the 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens. The 1901 constitution reiterated that schools be racially segregated. It also restated that interracial marriage was illegal, although such marriages had been made illegal in 1867. Further racial segregation laws were passed related to public facilities into the 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945.<ref name="jimcrowala"/> The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes.<ref name="SSpaces">{{cite web|url= http://southernspaces.org/2004/black-belt |title= The Black Belt |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |date= April 19, 2004 |work= Southern Spaces Internet Journal |publisher= Emory University}}</ref> Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the [[Rosenwald Fund]] began funding the construction of what came to be known as [[Rosenwald School]]s. In Alabama these schools were designed and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The local community and state raised matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas.<ref name="rosenwaldal">{{cite web|title=The Rosenwald School Building Fund and Associated Buildings MPS|work="National Register Information System" |url=http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NRHP/Text/64500011.pdf |accessdate=October 3, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Mount Sinai School Autauga County July 2011 1.jpg|thumb|The former [[Mount Sinai School]] in rural Autauga County, completed in 1919. It was one of the 387 Rosenwald Schools built in the state.]] Beginning in 1913, the first 80 [[Rosenwald School]]s were built in Alabama for African-American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teacher's houses, and several vocational buildings had been completed in the state by 1937. Several of the [[The Rosenwald School Building Fund and Associated Buildings Multiple Property Submission|surviving school buildings]] in the state are now listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].<ref name="rosenwaldal"/> Continued racial discrimination, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to [[boll weevil]] infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans to seek opportunities in northern cities. They left Alabama in the early 20th century as part of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] to industrial jobs and better futures in northern and midwestern industrial cities. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "Historical Populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920. At the same time, many rural people, both White and African American, moved to the city of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth that it was called "The Magic City". By the 1920s, Birmingham was the 19th-largest city in the United States and had more than 30% of the Alabama's population. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhamwiki.com/w/Birmingham |title=Birmingham |publisher=Bhamwiki |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict to recognize demographic changes, such as urbanization. Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the Civil War.<ref name="SSpaces"/> Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers can be shown by what happened in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war effort industries.<ref name="thomason2">Thomason, Michael. ''Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city'', pages 213–217. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8173-1065-7</ref> Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. In addition, the state legislature gerrymandered the few Birmingham legislative seats to ensure election by persons living outside Birmingham. [[File:SelmaHeschelMarch.jpg|thumb|left|The third [[Selma to Montgomery marches|Selma to Montgomery march]], one of the seminal events of the civil rights movement in Alabama.]] One result was that Jefferson County, containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25 per cent of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature."<ref name="pjhwpa"/> African Americans were presumed partial to Republicans for historical reasons, but they were disfranchised. White Alabamans felt bitter towards the Republican Party in the aftermath of the Civil War and Reconstruction. These factors created a longstanding tradition that any candidate who wanted to be viable with White voters had to run as a Democrat regardless of political beliefs. Although efforts had already started decades earlier, African Americans began to press to end disfranchisement and segregation in the state during the 1950s and 1960s with the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|Civil Rights Movement]]. In 1954 the US Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. The civil rights movement raised national awareness of the issues, leading to the enactment of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] by the U.S. Congress. During the 1960s, under Governor [[George Wallace]], failed attempts were made at the state level to resist federally sanctioned [[desegregation]] efforts. During the Civil Rights Movement, African Americans achieved enforcement of voting and other civil constitutional rights through the passage of the national [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]],<ref name="cra64">{{cite web|url=http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |title=Civil Rights Act of 1964 |publisher=Finduslaw.com |accessdate=October 24, 2010 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101021141154/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |archivedate= October 21, 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]]. Legal segregation ended in the states as [[Jim Crow laws]] were invalidated or repealed.<ref name="USDOJ">{{cite web|url= http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070221054512/http://www.usdoj.gov/kidspage/crt/voting.htm |archivedate= February 21, 2007 |title= Voting Rights |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |date= January 9, 2002 |work= Civil Rights: Law and History |publisher= U.S.Department of Justice}}</ref> Under the Voting Rights Act of 1965, cases were filed in Federal courts to force Alabama to redistrict by population both the House and Senate of the state legislature. In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature implemented the Alabama constitution's provision for periodic redistricting based on population. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than 60 years.<ref name="pjhwpa"/> ==Geography== [[File:Map of Alabama terrain NA.jpg|thumb|A general map of Alabama]] {{Main|Geography of Alabama}} {{See also|List of Alabama counties|Geology of Alabama}} Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with {{convert|52419|sqmi|km2|abbr=out|sp=us}} of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=n&_lang=en&mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_US9S&format=US-9S&_box_head_nbr=GCT-PH1-R&ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&geo_id=01000US |title= GCT-PH1-R. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density (areas ranked by population): 2000 |date=Census Year 2000 |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |work=Geographic Comparison Table |publisher= U.S.Census Bureau}}</ref> About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general descent towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes.<ref name="NetState">{{cite web |url= http://www.netstate.com/states/geography/al_geography.htm |title= The Geography of Alabama |work=Geography of the States |publisher=NetState.com |date= August 11, 2006 |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060917172224/http://www.netstate.com/states/geography/al_geography.htm |archivedate= September 17, 2006 <!--DASHBot-->|deadurl= no}}</ref> The states bordering Alabama are Tennessee to the north; Georgia to the east; Florida to the south; and [[Mississippi]] to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state.<ref name="NetState"/> Alabama ranges in elevation from sea level<ref name="usgs">{{cite web |date=April 29, 2005 |url=http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html#Highest |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States |publisher=U.S Geological Survey |accessdate=November 3, 2006 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20061102095332/http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |archivedate= November 2, 2006 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> at [[Mobile Bay]] to over 1,800&nbsp;feet (550&nbsp;m) in the [[Appalachian Mountains]] in the northeast. The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]],<ref name="NetState"/> at a height of {{convert|2413|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ngs>{{cite web |url=http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=DG3595 |title=NGS Data Sheet for Cheaha Mountain |publisher=U.S. National Geodetic Survey |accessdate=June 8, 2011}}</ref> Alabama's land consists of {{convert|22|e6acre|km2}} of forest or 67% of total land area.<ref>[http://www.alabamaforests.org/Introduction/index.html Alabama Forest Owner's Guide to Information Resources, Introduction], Alabamaforests.org</ref> Suburban [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin County]], along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-context=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_ST2S&-CONTEXT=gct&-tree_id=4001&-redoLog=true&-geo_id=04000US01&-format=ST-2 |title=Alabama County (geographies ranked by total population) |date= Census year 2000 |work=Geographic Comparison Table |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |accessdate=May 14, 2007}}</ref> Areas in Alabama administered by the [[National Park Service]] include [[Horseshoe Bend National Military Park]] near [[Alexander City, Alabama|Alexander City]]; [[Little River Canyon National Preserve]] near [[Fort Payne, Alabama|Fort Payne]]; [[Russell Cave National Monument]] in [[Bridgeport, Alabama|Bridgeport]]; [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]] in [[Tuskegee, Alabama|Tuskegee]]; and [[Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site]] near Tuskegee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.nps.gov/applications/parksearch/state.cfm?st=al |title=National Park Guide |accessdate=September 23, 2006 |work=Geographic Search |publisher=National Park Service – U.S. Department of the Interior |location=Washington, D.C |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060930090713/http://home.nps.gov/applications/parksearch/state.cfm?st=al |archivedate= September 30, 2006 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> Additionally, Alabama has four [[United States National Forest|National Forests]]: [[Conecuh National Forest|Conecuh]], [[Talladega National Forest|Talladega]], [[Tuskegee National Forest|Tuskegee]], and [[William B. Bankhead National Forest|William B. Bankhead]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/r8/alabama/forests/ |title=National Forests in Alabama |accessdate=October 5, 2008 |work=USDA Forest Service |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20081007051917/http://www.fs.fed.us/r8/alabama/forests/ |archivedate= October 7, 2008 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> Alabama also contains the [[Natchez Trace Parkway]], the [[Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail]], and the [[Trail of Tears|Trail Of Tears National Historic Trail]]. A notable natural wonder in Alabama is [[Natural Bridge, Alabama|"Natural Bridge"]] rock, the longest [[natural bridge]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]], located just south of [[Haleyville, Alabama|Haleyville]]. A {{convert|5|mi|km|0|adj=on}}-wide meteorite impact crater is located in [[Elmore County, Alabama|Elmore County]], just north of Montgomery. This is the [[Wetumpka crater]], the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster." A {{convert|1000|ft|m|sing=on}}-wide meteorite hit the area about 80&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="mlvguh">{{cite Earth Impact DB |name= Wetumpka |accessdate =August 20, 2009 |nocat=1}}</ref> The hills just east of downtown [[Wetumpka]] showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface.<ref>"The Wetumpka Astrobleme" by John C. Hall, Alabama Heritage, Fall 1996, Number 42.</ref> In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as 157th recognized impact crater on Earth.<ref>{{cite web |last=King |first=David T., Jr. |title=Wetumpka Crater |url=http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1035 |work=Encyclopedia of Alabama |accessdate=December 13, 2011 |date=April 23, 2010}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Alabama}} [[File:Birmingham city hall alabama 2010.jpg|thumb|left|Snowfall outside Birmingham City Hall in February 2010.]] The state is classified as [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] (''Cfa'') under the [[Humid temperate climate|Koppen Climate Classification]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://facstaff.unca.edu/cgodfrey/courses/atms179/ppt/greenhouse.pdf |title=Greenhouse effect and climate |author=Christopher M. Godfrey |date=November 4, 2008 |work=Atmospheric Sciences |publisher=University of North Carolina, Asheville }}</ref> The average annual temperature is 64&nbsp;°F (18&nbsp;°C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler.<ref name="cprgsw">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-78303/Alabama |title=Alabama Climate |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of {{convert|56|in|mm}} of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300&nbsp;days in the southern part of the state.<ref name="cprgsw"/> Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over {{convert|90|°F}} throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to [[tropical storm]]s and even [[hurricane]]s. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken. South Alabama reports many [[thunderstorms]]. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60&nbsp;days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent [[lightning]] and large [[hail]]; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks seventh in the number of deaths from lightning and ninth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita.<ref>[http://www.lightningsafety.com/nlsi_lls/fatalities_us.html Lightning Fatalities, Injuries and Damages in the United States, 1990–2003]. NLSI. Retrieved May 8, 2007.</ref> Alabama, along with [[Kansas]], has the most reported [[Enhanced Fujita scale|EF5 tornadoes]] of any state, according to statistics from the [[National Climatic Data Center]] for the period January 1, 1950, to October 31, 2006.<ref>[http://www.tornadoproject.com/fscale/fscale.htm Fujita scale]. Tornadoproject.com. Retrieved September 3, 2007.</ref> Several long-tracked F5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities than any other state, even surpassing Texas which has a much larger area within [[Tornado Alley]]. The state suffered tremendous damage in the [[Super Outbreak]] of April 1974, and the [[April 25–28, 2011 tornado outbreak]]. The outbreak in April 2011 produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62.<ref>{{cite web |last=Oliver |first=Mike |title=April 27's record tally: 62 tornadoes in Alabama |url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2011/08/april_27s_record_tally_62_torn.html |publisher=al.com |accessdate=November 4, 2012}}</ref> [[File:Phil Campbell tornado damage.jpg|thumb|right|Tornado damage in [[Phil Campbell, Alabama|Phil Campbell]] following the statewide [[April 25–28, 2011 tornado outbreak|April 27, 2011 tornado outbreak]].]] The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December, along with the spring severe weather season. The northern part of the state—along the Tennessee Valley—is one of the areas in the U.S. most vulnerable to violent tornadoes. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as [[Dixie Alley]], as distinct from the [[Tornado Alley]] of the Southern Plains. Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the southeastern U.S., with average January low temperatures around {{convert|40|°F}} in Mobile and around {{convert|32|°F}} in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include [[New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm]] and the [[1993 Storm of the Century]]. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is {{convert|2|in|mm}} per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. Alabama's highest temperature of {{convert|112|°F}} was recorded on September 5, 1925 in the unincorporated community of [[Centerville, Alabama|Centerville]]. The record low of {{convert|-27|°F}} occurred on January 30, 1966 in [[New Market, Alabama|New Market]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accuracyproject.org/recordtemps.html |title=Record high and low temperatures for all 50 states |work=Internet Accuracy Project |publisher=accuracyproject.org |accessdate=November 3, 2012}}</ref> {{Alabama weatherbox}} ===Flora and fauna=== [[File:CahabaRiverNWR1.jpg|thumb|A stand of [[Hymenocallis coronaria|Cahaba lilies]] (''Hymenocallis coronaria'') in the [[Cahaba River]], within the [[Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge]].]] {{Main|List of amphibians of Alabama|List of mammals of Alabama|List of reptiles of Alabama|Alabama Champion Tree Program|l4=Trees of Alabama}} Alabama is home to a diverse array of [[flora]] and [[fauna]], due largely to a variety of habitats that range from the [[Tennessee Valley]], [[Appalachian Plateau]], and [[Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians]] of the north to the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]], [[Canebrake (region of Alabama)|Canebrake]] and [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] of the central region to the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]] and beaches along the [[Gulf of Mexico]] in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall [[biodiversity]].<ref name="alawildlife">{{cite book |title=Alabama Wildlife: Volume One |last=Mirarchi |first=Ralph E. |year=2004 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |isbn=978-0-81735-1304 |pages=1–3, 60 }}</ref><ref name="outalawildlife">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/ |title=Alabama Wildlife and their Conservation Status |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> Alabama once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state.<ref name="alawildlife"/> It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 [[pteridophyte]] and [[spermatophyte]] plant species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.floraofalabama.org/ |title=About the Atlas |work=Alabama Plant Atlas |publisher=Alabama Herbarium Consortium and University of West Alabama |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> [[Indigenous (ecology)|Indigenous]] animal species in the state include 62 [[mammal]] [[species]],<ref name="outalamam">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/Mammals/ |title=Mammals |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> 93 [[reptile]] species,<ref name="outalarep">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/reptiles/ |title=Reptiles |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> 73 [[amphibian]] species,<ref name="outalaamphi">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/Amphibians/ |title=Amphibians |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> roughly 307 native [[freshwater fish]] species,<ref name="alawildlife"/> and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state.<ref name="outalabird">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/birds/ |title=Birds |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> Invertebrates include 83 [[crayfish]] species and 383 [[mollusk]] species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside of the state.<ref name="outalamollusk">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/inverts/mollusks/ |title=Alabama Snails and Mussels |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref><ref name="outalacray">{{cite web |url=http://www.outdooralabama.com/watchable-wildlife/what/inverts/crayfish/ |title=Crayfish |work=Outdoor Alabama |publisher=Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources |accessdate=October 16, 2012}}</ref> ==Demographics== [[File:Alabama population map.png|thumb|left|Alabama's population density]] {{Main|Demographics of Alabama}} {{US Census population |1800= 1250 |1810= 9046 |1820= 127901 |1830= 309527 |1840= 590756 |1850= 771623 |1860= 964201 |1870= 996992 |1880= 1262505 |1890= 1513401 |1900= 1828697 |1910= 2138093 |1920= 2348174 |1930= 2646248 |1940= 2832961 |1950= 3061743 |1960= 3266740 |1970= 3444165 |1980= 3893888 |1990= 4040587 |2000= 4447100 |2010= 4779745 |estimate= 4833722 |estyear= 2013 |footnote=<center>Sources: 1910–2010<ref>{{cite web|author=Resident Population Data |url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php |title=Resident Population Data – 2010 Census |publisher=2010.census.gov |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110519131122/http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php |archivedate= May 19, 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref><br>2013 Estimate<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2013/tables/NST-EST2013-01.csv|title=Table 1. Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013|accessdate=January 3, 2014}}</ref></center> }} The [[United States Census Bureau]] estimates that the population of Alabama was 4,833,722 on July 1, 2013,<ref name=PopEstUS>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2013/tables/NST-EST2013-01.csv|title=Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013|format=[[comma-separated values|CSV]]|work=2013 Population Estimates|publisher=United States Census Bureau, Population Division|date=December 2013|accessdate=January 3, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2013|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2013/tables/NST-EST2013-01.csv|accessdate=January 3, 2014}}</ref> which represents an increase of 53,986, or 1.1%, since the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]].<ref name=census_cum>{{cite web |title=Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/national/totals/2012/index.html |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |format=[[comma-separated values|CSV]] |accessdate=December 24, 2012 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090205023552/http://www.census.gov/popest/states/tables/NST-EST2008-04.csv |archivedate= February 5, 2009 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 people (that is 502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 people into the state.<ref name=census_cum/> [[Immigration to the United States|Immigration]] from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people.<ref name=census_cum/> The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal immigrants (24,000). The [[center of population]] of Alabama is located in [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton County]], outside of the town of [[Jemison, Alabama|Jemison]].<ref>{{cite web|title= Population and Population Centers by State – 2000 |publisher= United States Census Bureau |accessdate =December 3, 2008 |url= http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20081218235101/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt |archivedate= December 18, 2008 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Race and ancestry=== According to the [[2010 United States Census|2010 Census]], Alabama had a population of 4,779,736. The racial composition of the state was 68.5% White (67.0% Non-Hispanic [[Non-Hispanic Whites|White]] Alone), 26.2% [[African American|Black]] or African American, 3.9% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]] or Latinos of any race, 1.1% Asian, 0.6% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 2.0% from Some Other Race, and 1.5% from Two or More Races.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |title=American FactFinder |publisher=Factfinder2.census.gov |date=October 5, 2010 |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110520164400/http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_QTPL&prodType=table |archivedate= May 20, 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age 1 were minorities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas_under_age_1_populatio.html |title=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot |last=Exner |first=Rich |work=The Plain Dealer |date=June 3, 2012 |accessdate= }}</ref> The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are: African American (26.2%), [[English American|English]] (23.6%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German American|German]] (5.7%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] (2.0%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:WJGw9z2RkkYJ:www.uen.org/Lessonplan/downloadFile.cgi%3Ffile%3D1041-6-15955-AF_Census_Data.pdf%26filename%3DAF_Census_Data.pdf+49,598,035&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgyigzsjZP7yBWdThzodFWP_t7GiFtOGi5W12qTf5nLj_yFzQ0YIKJn2pSyS1TIT-ZjvBx0s057h5mpwrf39HOZmlg3VzoOdaoPrNTdS6x-0SbHnwGXfzVLkDYTyIg7k4E_Zsn8&sig=AHIEtbTzro9GQY6LB1-9ZG9n2r46Epyyaw |title=Data on selected ancestry groups |publisher=Google |accessdate=June 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/pc80-s1-10/tab02.pdf |title=1980 United States Census |format=PDF |accessdate=June 1, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110604160009/http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/pc80-s1-10/tab02.pdf |archivedate= June 4, 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="factfinder.census.gov">{{cite web |publisher= Factfinder.census.gov |url= http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US01&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false |title=Alabama – Selected Social Characteristics in the United States: 2006–2008 |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> Those citing "American" ancestry in Alabama are generally of English or British ancestry; many [[English American|Anglo-Americans]] identify as having American ancestry because their roots have been in North America for so long, in some cases since the 1600s. Demographers estimate that a minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and that the figure is likely higher. In the 1980 census, 41% of the people in Alabama identified as being of English ancestry, making them the largest ethnic group at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/population/www/censusdata/files/pc80-s1-10/tab03.pdf |title=Ancestry of the Population by State: 1980 – Table 3 |format=PDF |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref><ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVoAXh-dNuYC&pg=PA57&dq=Sharing+the+dream:+white+males+in+multicultural+America++english+ancestry&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false Dominic J. Pulera, ''Sharing the Dream: White Males in a Multicultural America''].</ref><ref>Reynolds Farley, "The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us?", ''Demography'', Vol. 28, No. 3 (August 1991), pp. 414, 421.</ref><ref>Stanley Lieberson and Lawrence Santi, "The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns", ''Social Science Research'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (1985), pp. 44–6.</ref><ref>Stanley Lieberson and Mary C. Waters, "Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites", ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', Vol. 487, No. 79 (September 1986), pp. 82–86.</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size: 90%;" |+ '''Alabama Racial Breakdown of Population''' |- ! Racial composition !! 1990<ref>[http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States]</ref> !! 2000<ref>[http://censusviewer.com/state/AL Population of Alabama: Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts]</ref>!! 2010<ref>[http://www.census.gov/2010census/data/ 2010 Census Data]</ref> |- | [[White American|White]] || 73.6% || 71.1% || 68.5% |- | [[African American|Black]] || 25.3% || 26.0% || 26.2% |- | [[Asian American|Asian]] || 0.5% || 0.7% || 1.1% |- | [[Native Americans in the United States|Native]] || 0.4% || 0.5% || 0.6% |- | [[Native Hawaiian]] and <br>[[Pacific Islander|other Pacific Islander]] || - || - || 0.1% |- | [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|Other race]] || 0.1% || 0.6% || 2.0% |- | [[Multiracial American|Two or more races]] || - || 1.0% || 1.5% |} Based on historic migration and settlement patterns in the southern colonies and states, demographers estimated there are more people in Alabama of Scots-Irish origins than self-reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US01&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_DP3YR2&-ds_name=&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false |title=American FactFinder |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> Many people in Alabama claim Irish ancestry because of the term Scots-Irish but, based on historic immigration and settlement, their ancestors were more likely Protestant Scots-Irish coming from northern Ireland, where they had been for a few generations as part of the English colonization.<ref name="census-ancestries">[[Media:Census-2000-Data-Top-US-Ancestries-by-County.jpg|Census 2000 Map – Top U.S. Ancestries by County]]</ref> The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed.<ref>David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, pp.361–368</ref> In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the [[Alabama Indian Affairs Commission]].<ref name="aiac">[http://www.aiac.state.al.us/tribes.aspx "Alabama Indian Affairs Commission"], State of Alabama, accessed September 28, 2013</ref> Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has [[State recognized tribes in the United States|officially recognized]] nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the [[Five Civilized Tribes]] of the American Southeast. These are:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aiac.alabama.gov/ByLaws.aspx |title=AIAC Bylaws |work=Alabama Indian Affairs Commission |publisher=State of Alabama |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> *[[Poarch Band of Creek Indians]] (who also have federal recognition), *[[MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians]], *Star Clan of [[Muscogee Creek people|Muscogee Creek]]s, *Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama, *[[Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama]], *Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians, *''Ma-Chis'' Lower Creek Indian Tribe, *''Piqua'' [[Shawnee]] Tribe, and *''Ani-Yun-Wiya'' Nation. The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day.<ref>[http://www.aiac.state.al.us/ProcIndianHeritageDay.aspx "American Indian Heritage Day", Alabama Indian Affairs Commission, 2000, accessed 28 September 2013]</ref> ===Population centers=== [[File:Birmingham, Alabama Skyline.jpg|thumb|[[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], largest city and metropolitan area]] [[File:Downtown Huntsville, Alabama cropped.jpg|thumb|[[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]], second-largest metropolitan area]] [[File:Downtown Mobile 2008 01.jpg|thumb|[[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], third-largest metropolitan area]] [[File:Montgomery Alabama panorama.jpg|thumb|[[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], fourth-largest metropolitan area]] [[File:Tuscaloosaa1dt.jpg|thumb|[[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]], fifth-largest metropolitan area]] {{Main|List of Metropolitan areas of Alabama}} {{See also|List of cities in Alabama}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Rank ! Metropolitan Area ! Population <br />(2012 Census Estimate) ! Counties |- |1 | [[Birmingham-Hoover Metropolitan Area|Birmingham-Hoover]] |align=center |1,136,650 | [[Bibb County, Alabama|Bibb]], [[Blount County, Alabama|Blount]], [[Chilton County, Alabama|Chilton]], [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson]], [[St. Clair County, Alabama|St. Clair]], [[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]], [[Walker County, Alabama|Walker]] |- |2 | [[Huntsville Metropolitan Area|Huntsville]] |align=center |430,734 | [[Limestone County, Alabama|Limestone]], [[Madison County, Alabama|Madison]] |- |3 | [[Mobile metropolitan area|Mobile]] |align=center |413,936 | [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] |- |4 | [[Montgomery Metropolitan Area|Montgomery]] |align=center |377,149 | [[Autauga County, Alabama|Autauga]], [[Elmore County, Alabama|Elmore]], [[Lowndes County, Alabama|Lowndes]], [[Montgomery County, Alabama|Montgomery]] |- |5 | [[Tuscaloosa metropolitan area|Tuscaloosa]] |align=center |233,389 | [[Hale County, Alabama|Hale]], [[Pickens County, Alabama|Pickens]], [[Tuscaloosa County, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |- |6 | [[Decatur Metropolitan Area|Decatur]] |align=center |154,233 | [[Lawrence County, Alabama|Lawrence]], [[Morgan County, Alabama|Morgan]] |- |7 | [[Dothan metropolitan area|Dothan]] |align=center |147,620 | [[Geneva County, Alabama|Geneva]], [[Henry County, Alabama|Henry]], [[Houston County, Alabama|Houston]] |- |8 | [[Auburn Metropolitan Area|Auburn-Opelika]] |align=center |147,257 | [[Lee County, Alabama|Lee]] |- |9 | [[Florence-Muscle Shoals Metropolitan Area|Florence-Muscle Shoals]] |align=center |146,988 | [[Colbert County, Alabama|Colbert]], [[Lauderdale County, Alabama|Lauderdale]] |- |10 | [[Anniston-Oxford Metropolitan Area|Anniston-Oxford-Jacksonville]] |align=center |117,296 | [[Calhoun County, Alabama|Calhoun]] |- |11 | [[Gadsden Metropolitan Statistical Area|Gadsden]] |align=center |104,392 | [[Etowah County, Alabama|Etowah]] |- | |align=right |Total |align=center |3,409,644 | |} Sources: Census.gov<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/geo/www/maps/msa_maps2009/msa2009_previews_html/cbsa_us_wall_1209.html |title=Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas of the United States and Puerto Rico, December 2009 (map) |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Rank !! City !! Population <br />(2010 Census) !! County |- |style="text-align:center;" |1 | [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |style="text-align:center;"|212,237 | [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |2 | [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |style="text-align:center;" |205,764 | [[Montgomery County, Alabama|Montgomery]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |3 | [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] |style="text-align:center;" |195,111 | [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |4 | [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] |style="text-align:center;" |183,739 | [[Madison County, Alabama|Madison]] <br />[[Limestone County, Alabama|Limestone]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |5 | [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |style="text-align:center;" |93,357 | [[Tuscaloosa County, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |6 | [[Hoover, Alabama|Hoover]] |style="text-align:center;" |83,412 |Jefferson <br />[[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |7 | [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]] |style="text-align:center;" |65,496 | [[Houston County, Alabama|Houston]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |8 | [[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]] |style="text-align:center;" |55,683 | [[Morgan County, Alabama|Morgan]] <br /> Limestone |- |style="text-align:center;" |9 | [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |style="text-align:center;" |53,380 | [[Lee County, Alabama|Lee]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |10 | [[Madison, Alabama|Madison]] |style="text-align:center;" |42,938 |Madison <br />Limestone |- |style="text-align:center;" |11 | [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] |style="text-align:center;" |39,319 | [[Lauderdale County, Alabama|Lauderdale]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |12 | [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] |style="text-align:center;" |36,856 | [[Etowah County, Alabama|Etowah]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |13 | [[Vestavia Hills, Alabama|Vestavia Hills]] |style="text-align:center;" |34,033 |Jefferson |- |style="text-align:center;" |14 | [[Prattville, Alabama|Prattville]] |style="text-align:center;" |33,960 | [[Autauga County, Alabama|Autauga]] |- |style="text-align:center;" |15 | [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]] |style="text-align:center;" |32,822 | [[Russell County, Alabama|Russell]] |} Sources: Census.gov<ref>http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk</ref> ===Religion=== In the 2008 [[American Religious Identification Survey]], 80% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, 6% as Catholic, and 11% as having no religion.<ref name=ARIS2008>{{cite web |url=http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |format=PDF |title=AMERICAN RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION SURVEY (ARIS) 2008 |author=Barry A. Kosmin and Ariela Keysar |year=2009 |publisher=Trinity College |location=Hartford, Connecticut, USA |page=20 |accessdate=May 8, 2009 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |archivedate= April 7, 2009 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu.<ref>http://religions.pewforum.org/maps</ref> ====Christianity==== {{Details3|[[History of Baptists in Alabama]], [[List of Baptist churches in Alabama|Baptist churches in Alabama]], [[Episcopal Diocese of Alabama]], [[Episcopal Diocese of the Central Gulf Coast]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mobile]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Birmingham in Alabama|Roman Catholic Diocese of Birmingham]], and [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Alabama]]|Christianity in Alabama}} [[File:First Baptist Mobile 02.jpg|thumb|First Baptist Church of Mobile, established in 1835.]] [[File:Briarwood Presbyterian Church in Birmingham, AL.jpg|thumb|[[Briarwood Presbyterian Church]] a famous Presbyterian congregation in Alabama]] [[File:Temple B'Nai Shalom Dec2009 01.jpg|thumb|[[Temple B'nai Sholom (Huntsville, Alabama)|Temple B'Nai Sholom]] in Huntsville, established in 1876. It is the oldest synagogue building in continuous use in the state.]] Alabama is located in the middle of the [[Bible Belt]], a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the US, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly.<ref>[http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060502/news_lz1n2thelist.html US Church attendance]</ref> A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. As of 2010, the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the [[Southern Baptist Convention]], [[The United Methodist Church]], and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/01/rcms2010_01_state_name_2010.asp |title=The Association of Religion Data Archives &#124; State membership Report |publisher=www.thearda.com |accessdate=November 7, 2013}}</ref> In Alabama, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the [[United Methodist Church]] with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the [[Great Awakening]] of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The [[Assemblies of God]] had almost 60,000 members, the [[Churches of Christ]] had nearly 120,000 members. The [[Presbyterian church]]es, strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 ([[Presbyterian Church in America|PCA]]-24,020 members in 108 congregations, [[PC(USA)]]-36,000 members in 147 congregations, the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church]]-6,000 members in 58 congregations, the [[Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America]]-5,000 members and 50 congreagtions plus the [[Edgewater Presbyterian Church|EPC]] and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and 9 congregations).<ref name="thearda">{{cite web |url=http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/01_2000.asp |title=State Membership Reports |year= 2000 |accessdate=June 15, 2010 |publisher= thearda.com}}</ref> In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian [[Canonical Gospels|Gospels]]. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Kirsten |last=Campbell |work=Mobile Register |title=Alabama rates well in biblical literacy |date=March 25, 2007 |page=A1 |publisher=Advance Publications, Inc}}</ref> In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myaea.org/PDFfile/Confidence+in+State+Institutions07.pdf |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20070809021852/http://www.myaea.org/PDFfile/Confidence+in+State+Institutions07.pdf |archivedate=August 9, 2007 |title=Confidence in State and Local Institutions Survey |work=Capital Survey Research Center |accessdate=June 2, 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=David |last=White |title=Poll says we feel good about state Trust in government, unlike some institutions, hasn't fallen |date=April 1, 2007 |work=Birmingham News |page=13A}}</ref> ====Other faiths==== Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]], and the [[Bahá'í Faith]].<ref name="thearda"/> Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when [[Sephardic Jews]] immigrated from London.<ref name="shomayim">{{cite book |title=The Gates of Heaven : Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim, the first 150 years, Mobile, Alabama, 1844-1994 |last=Zietz |first=Robert |year=1994 |publisher=Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim|location=Mobile, Alabama |isbn= |pages=1–7 }}</ref> The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is [[Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim (Mobile, Alabama)|Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim]] in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844.<ref name="shomayim"/> Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be [[Ashkenazy Jews]] from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], four [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], ten [[Reform Judaism (North America)|Reform]], and one [[Humanistic Judaism|Humanistic]] synagogue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kosherdelight.com/USA/Alabama/AlabamaSynagogues.shtml |title=Synagogues in Alabama |publisher=Kosher Delight |accessdate=September 8, 2012}}</ref> Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts.<ref name="2011muslim">{{cite news |title=Survey: U.S. Muslims grow by 30 percent since 2000 |author= Kay Campbell |url=http://www.al.com/living/index.ssf/2012/02/survey_us_muslims_grow_by_30_p.html |newspaper=The Huntsville Times |date=February 29, 2012 |accessdate=September 8, 2012}}</ref> Islam was a traditional religion in West Africa, from where many [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]] were brought to the colonies and the United States during the centuries of the slave trade. Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by [[Indian people|Indian]] immigrants and their descendants, the most well-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center Of Birmingham in [[Pelham, Alabama|Pelham]], the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in [[Capshaw, Alabama|Capshaw]], and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.garamchai.com/templesSE.htm |title=Hindu Temples in the South East: catering to the needs of NRI and Indians in US |work=GaramChai |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hindumandir.cc/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=33&Itemid=42 |title=History of Hindu Mandir & Cultural Center |work=Hindu Mandir & Cultural Center |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> There are six [[Dharma centre|Dharma centers]] and organizations for [[Theravada]] [[Buddhists]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manjushri.com/Centers/alabama.htm |title=Dharma Centers and Organizations in Alabama |work=Manjushri Buddhist Community |publisher=AcuMaestro |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near [[Bayou La Batre, Alabama|Bayou La Batre]]. This area has attracted an influx of refugees from [[Cambodia]], Laos, and [[South Vietnam]] during the 1970s and thereafter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/katrina/Gaillard.html |title=After the Storms: Tradition and Change in Bayou La Batre |author=Frye Gaillard |date=December 2007 |work=Journal of American History |publisher=Organization of American Historians |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/living-press-register/2011/10/for_vietnamese_buddhists_in_so.html |title=For Vietnamese Buddhists In South Alabama, A Goddess Of Mercy Is A Powerful Figure |author=Roy Hoffman |newspaper=Press-Register |date=October 22, 2011 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/living-press-register/2009/08/a_welcome_gateway_to_the_far_e.html |title=A Welcome Gateway to the Far East |author=Debbie M. Lord |newspaper=Press-Register |date=August 29, 2009 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/live/2012/05/buddhist_monk_killed_temple_le.html |title=Buddhist Monk Killed Temple Leader During Argument Over Food, Prosecutor Says |author= Katherine Sayre |newspaper=Press-Register |date=May 17, 2012 |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> ===Health=== A [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama was a problem, with most counties having over 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDT_STRS2/CountyPrevalenceData.aspx?StateId=1&mode=OBS |title=County Level Estimates of Obesity – State Maps |year=2008|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref> Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2011/p0216_physicalinactivity.html |title=Highest Rates of Leisure-Time Physical Inactivity in Appalachia and South |year=2008 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref> Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset [[diabetes type II|diabetes]] in the country, exceeding 10% of adults.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDT_STRS2/CountyPrevalenceData.aspx?mode=DBT |title=County Level Estimates of Diagnosed Diabetes – State Maps |year=2008|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DDT_STRS2/NationalDiabetesPrevalenceEstimates.aspx?mode=DBT |title=CDC national chart on diabetes |publisher=Apps.nccd.cdc.gov |accessdate=June 1, 2011}}</ref> ==Economy== {{See also|Alabama locations by per capita income}} The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and [[fabrication (metal)|fabrication]]. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5 billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about 1% of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-2330 |title=Food Production in Alabama |last1=Ijaz |first1=Ahmad |last2=Addy |first2=Samuel N. |date=July 6, 2009 |work=The Encyclopedia of Alabama |publisher=Auburn University |accessdate=September 22, 2012}}</ref> Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving.<ref name="alaindustrial"/> According to the U.S. [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the 2008 total [[gross state product]] was $170&nbsp;billion, or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2008 GDP increased 0.7% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/gsp_newsrelease.htm |title=GDP by State (2008) |date=June 2, 2009 |work=Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Economic Accounts |accessdate=October 9, 2009 }} [http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/2009/pdf/gsp0609.pdf full release with tables]</ref> In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html |title=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=February 25, 2012 |work=State and County Quick Facts }}</ref> The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 7.2% in March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Local Area Unemployment Statistics – Alabama|work=Bureau of Labor Statistics|url=http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/surveymost?la+01|accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 7.6%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Top Picks |work=Bureau of Labor Statistics|url=http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/surveymost?la+01|accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> ===Largest employers=== [[File:Enterprise lifted.jpg|thumb|The [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Space Shuttle ''Enterprise'']] being tested at Marshall Space Flight Center in 1978.]] [[File:Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama Highsmith 01.jpg|thumb|Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama in Montgomery in 2010]] [[File:Shelbyhallcomputing.JPG|thumb|Shelby Hall, School of Computing, at the [[University of South Alabama]] in Mobile]] According to the ''[[Birmingham Business Journal]]'', the five employers which employ the most employees in Alabama as of April 2011 were:<ref name="bbjournal">Aneesa McMillan. "[http://www.bizjournals.com/birmingham/blog/2011/04/top-of-the-list-alabamas-largest.html Top of the List: Alabama's largest employers]" (April 22, 2011). ''Birmingham Business Journal''.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Employer ! Number of employees |- | [[Redstone Arsenal]] | 25,373 |- | [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] (includes [[UAB Hospital]]) | 18,750 |- | [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] | 12,280 |- | [[State of Alabama]] | 9,500 |- | [[Mobile County Public School System]] | 8,100 |} The next twenty largest, as identified in the Birmingham Business Journal in 2011, included:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americanregistry.com/recognition/alabamas-largest-employers/116523 |title=Alabama's Largest Employers |date=April 2011 |work=Birmingham Business Journal |publisher=American Registry |accessdate=September 19, 2012}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Employer ! Location |- | [[Anniston Army Depot]] | [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] |- | [[AT&T Inc.|AT&T]] | Multiple |- | [[Auburn University]] | [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |- | [[Baptist Medical Center South]] | [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |- | [[Birmingham City Schools]] | [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |- | [[Birmingham, Alabama|City of Birmingham]] | Birmingham |- | [[DCH Health System]] | Tuscaloosa |- | [[Huntsville City Schools]] | [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] |- | [[Huntsville Hospital System]] | Huntsville |- | [[Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama]] | Montgomery |- | [[Infirmary Health System]] | [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] |- | [[Jefferson County Schools (Alabama)|Jefferson County Board of Education]] | Birmingham |- | [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] | Huntsville |- | [[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]] | [[Vance, Alabama|Vance]] |- | [[Montgomery Public Schools]] | Montgomery |- | [[Regions Financial Corporation]] | Multiple |- | [[Boeing]] | Multiple |- | [[University of Alabama]] | [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] |- | [[University of South Alabama]] | Mobile |- | [[Walmart]] | Multiple |} ===Agriculture=== Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, cattle, fish, plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains such as corn and [[sorghum]], vegetables, milk, [[soybean]]s, and peaches. Although known as "The Cotton State", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in national cotton production, according to various reports,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://cber.cba.ua.edu/pdf/ab2005q4.pdf |title= Alabama and CBER: 75 Years of Change |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |date= Q4 2005 |work= Alabama Business |publisher= Center for Business and Economic Research, Culverhouse College of Commerce, The University of Alabama|format=PDF| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060927141609/http://cber.cba.ua.edu/pdf/ab2005q4.pdf| archivedate= September 27, 2006 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.aces.edu/dept/nass/bulletin/2005/pg05.pdf |title= State Highlights for 2004–2005 |accessdate =September 23, 2006 |year= 2005 |work= Alabama Cooperative Extension System |publisher= USDA, NASS, Alabama Statistical Office|format=PDF| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060921005808/http://www.aces.edu/dept/nass/bulletin/2005/pg05.pdf| archivedate= September 21, 2006 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> with Texas, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Mississippi]] comprising the top three. ===Industry=== Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, [[lumber]], and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and [[apparel]]. Also, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronics|electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, the location of [[NASA]]'s [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Materiel Command|U.S. Army Materiel Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]]. [[File:Mercedes Benz US International 01.jpg|thumb|[[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]] in Tuscaloosa County was the first automotive facility to locate within the state.]] A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are [[Honda Manufacturing of Alabama]], [[Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], [[Mercedes-Benz U.S. International]], and [[Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama]], as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2008_fotw539.html |title=Vehicle Technologies Program: Fact #539: October 6, 2008 Light Vehicle Production by State |publisher=.eere.energy.gov |date=October 6, 2008 |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=McCreless|first=Patrick|title=Automakers account for about a third of the state's industrial expansion |url=http://www.annistonstar.com/view/full_story/20677539/article-Automakers-account-for-about-a-third-of-the-state-s-industrial-expansion?instance=home_news#ixzz2DioLu4sx |accessdate=June 15, 2013 |newspaper=The Anniston Star |date=October 31, 2012 }}</ref> The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the [[Hyundai Elantra]] compact car, the [[Mercedes-Benz GL-Class]] sport utility vehicle and the [[Honda Ridgeline]] sport utility truck.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kent|first=Dawn|title=U.S. auto sales see gains in March, as Alabama-made models rise 4 percent|url=http://www.al.com/business/index.ssf/2013/04/us_auto_sales_see_gains_in_mar.html#incart_river|accessdate=June 15, 2013|newspaper=AL.com|date=April 2, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Airbus Mobile Engineering Center.jpg|thumb|left|Airbus Mobile Engineering Center at the Brookley Aeroplex in Mobile]] Steel producers [[Outokumpu]], [[Nucor]], [[SSAB]], [[ThyssenKrupp]], and [[U.S. Steel]] have facilities in Alabama and employ over 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected [[Calvert, Alabama|Calvert]] in [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile County]] for a 4.65 billion combined [[stainless steel|stainless]] and [[carbon steel]] processing facility.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://blog.al.com/live/2007/05/mobile_county_wins_thyssenkrup.html |title=ThyssenKrupp's Alabama incentive package tops $811&nbsp;million |newspaper= Press-Register |date= May 11, 2007 |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110726144848/http://blog.al.com/live/2007/05/mobile_county_wins_thyssenkrup.html |archivedate= July 26, 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=New owners of ThyssenKrupp stainless steel division plan visit in June |work=Press-Register |date=May 31, 2012 |url=http://blog.al.com/press-register-business/2012/05/new_owners_of_thyssenkrupp_sta.html |accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by [[ArcelorMittal]] and [[Nippon Steel]] for $1.6 billion in March 2013. [[Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional]] submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8 billion.<ref>{{cite news|title=Report: ThyssenKrupp gets final bids for Steel Americas plants |work=AL.com |date=March 1, 2013 |url=http://www.al.com/business/index.ssf/2013/03/report_thyssenkrupp_gets_final.html |accessdate=June 15, 2013}}</ref> The [[Hunt Refining Company]], a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and [[Moundville, Alabama|Moundville]].<ref>"[http://www.linkedin.com/company/hunt-refining-company Hunt Refining Company]." Linkedin.</ref> [[JVC|JVC America, Inc.]] operates an [[optical disc]] replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa.<ref>"[http://www.jvc-america.com/about/plant_locations.aspx Company Overview]." JVC America, Inc.</ref> Construction of an [[Airbus A320 family]] aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by [[Airbus]] CEO [[Fabrice Brégier]] from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600 million factory at the [[Brookley Aeroplex]] for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017.<ref name="apconfirm">{{cite news|title=Airbus to Build 1st US Assembly Plant in Alabama |agency=Associated Press |author=Melissa Nelson-Gabriel |date=July 2, 2012 |url=http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/officials-ala-airbus-plant-employ-1000-16690789#.T_HRzJHhcqN |accessdate=July 2, 2012}}</ref><ref name="bbcconfirm">{{cite news|title=Airbus confirms its first US factory to build A320 jet |work=BBC News |date=July 2, 2012 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18675711 |accessdate=July 2, 2012}}</ref> The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=EADS to Build United States Assembly Line for Airbus A320|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/business/global/eads-to-build-airbus-assembly-line-in-mobile-ala.html|work=The New York Times|accessdate=July 2, 2012|author=Nicola Clark}}</ref> It was announced on February 1, 2013 that Airbus had hired Alabama-based [[Hoar Construction]] to oversee construction of the facility.<ref name=airbusasby>{{cite web|title=Airbus Appoints Program Manager for its Mobile Assembly Line|url=http://www.airbus.com/newsevents/news-events-single/detail/airbus-appoints-program-manager-for-its-mobile-assembly-line/|publisher=Airbus|accessdate=February 7, 2013}}</ref> ===Tourism=== [[File:GulfShoresAlBeachJuly08B.jpg|thumb|right|Alabama's beaches have a strong impact on the state's economy.]] An estimated 20 million tourists visit the state each year. Over 100,000 of these are from other countries, including from Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany and Japan. In 2006, 22.3 million tourists spent $8.3 billion providing an estimated 162,000 jobs in the state.<ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1268 Encyclopedia of Alabama]. Alabama Tourism Department (ATD)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.800alabama.com/about-alabama/alabama-news-facts/frequently-asked-questions/ |title=Frequently Asked Questions – Sweet Home Alabama |publisher=800alabama.com |date=July 1, 2004 |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url= |first=David A. |last=Fahrenthold |title=Obama to survey environmental damage in gulf |publisher=Washington Pose |location=Washington, DC |page= A6 |date=May 2, 2010}}</ref> ===Healthcare=== [[UAB Hospital]] is the only [[trauma center|Level I trauma center]] in Alabama.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.facs.org/trauma/verified.html |title=Verified Trauma Centers |date=December 30, 2010 |work=American College of Surgeons, Verified Trauma Centers |accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://webspace.utexas.edu/jas5349/Research_Data.htm |title=College Research Data |work=University of Texas |accessdate=April 18, 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000.<ref>[http://www.hrm.uab.edu/main/employment/index.html Welcome to UAB Recruitment Services]</ref> ===Banking=== [[File:Birmingham skyscrapers Nov 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Regions-Harbert Plaza]], [[Regions Center]], and [[Wells Fargo Tower (Birmingham)|Wells Fargo Tower]] in Birmingham's financial district.]] Alabama has the headquarters of [[Regions Financial Corporation]], [[BBVA Compass]], [[Superior Bancorp]] and the former [[Colonial Bancgroup]]. Birmingham-based Compass Banchshares was acquired by Spanish-based [[BBVA]] in September 2007, although the headquarters of BBVA Compass remains in Birmingham. In November 2006, Regions Financial completed its merger with [[AmSouth Bancorporation]], which was also headquartered in Birmingham. [[SouthTrust Corporation]], another large bank headquartered in Birmingham, was acquired by [[Wachovia]] in 2004 for $14.3 billion. The city still has major operations for Wachovia and its now post-operating bank [[Wells Fargo]], which includes a regional headquarters, an operations center campus and a $400 million data center. Nearly a dozen smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham, such as Superior Bancorp, [[ServisFirst]] and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including [[Harbert Management Corporation]]. ===Electronics=== Telecommunications provider [[AT&T Inc.|AT&T]], formerly [[BellSouth]], has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham. The company has over 6,000 employees and more than 1,200 contract employees. Many commercial technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as the network access company [[ADTRAN]], computer graphics company [[Intergraph]], design and manufacturer of IT infrastructure [[Avocent]], and telecommunications provider [[Deltacom]]. [[Cinram]] manufactures and distributes 20th Century Fox DVDs and Blu-ray Discs out of their Huntsville plant. ===Construction=== Rust International has grown to include [[Brasfield & Gorrie]], [[BE&K]], [[Hoar Construction]] and [[B.L. Harbert International]], which all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. (Rust International was acquired in 2000 by [[Washington Group International]], which was in turn acquired by San-Francisco based [[URS Corporation]] in 2007.){{clear}} ==Law and government== ===State government=== [[File:Alabama Capitol Building.jpg|thumb|The [[Alabama State Capitol|State Capitol Building]] in Montgomery, completed in 1851,]] {{Main|Government of Alabama}} The foundational document for Alabama's government is the [[Alabama Constitution]], which was ratified in 1901. At almost 800 amendments and 310,000 words, it is the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the [[U.S. Constitution]].<ref name="Washington Post">{{Cite news |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A16443-2004Nov27?language=printer |last= Roig-Franzia |first= Manuel |title= Alabama Vote Opens Old Racial Wounds |work=The Washington Post |date= November 28, 2004 |accessdate= September 22, 2006}}</ref><ref name="Constitution">{{cite web |url= http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeOfAlabama/Constitution/1901/Constitution1901_toc.htm |title= Constitution of Alabama – 1901 |work= The Alabama Legislative Information System |accessdate= September 22, 2006 |archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20060923081542/http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeOfAlabama/Constitution/1901/Constitution1901_toc.htm |archivedate= September 23, 2006 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitutionalreform.org/ |title=Alabama Citizens for Constitutional Reform |publisher=Constitutionalreform.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100915165938/http://www.constitutionalreform.org/ |archivedate= September 15, 2010 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl= no}}</ref> This movement is based upon the fact that Alabama's constitution highly centralizes power in Montgomery and leaves practically no power in local hands. Any policy changes proposed around the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length were intentional to codify segregation and racism. [[File:Ala Supreme Court Building Feb 2012 01.jpg|thumb|The [[Alabama Judicial Building]] in Montgomery. It houses the [[Alabama Supreme Court]], [[Alabama Court of Civil Appeals]], and [[Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals]].]] Alabama's government is divided into three equal branches: The [[legislative branch]] is the [[Alabama Legislature]], a [[bicameral]] assembly composed of the [[Alabama House of Representatives]], with 105 members, and the [[Alabama Senate]], with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] currently holds a majority in both houses of the [[Alabama Legislature|Legislature]]. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto). The [[executive branch]] is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the [[Governor of Alabama]]. Other members of executive branch include the cabinet, the [[Attorney General of Alabama]], the [[Alabama Secretary of State]], the [[Alabama State Treasurer]], and the [[State Auditor of Alabama]]. The current [[Governor of Alabama|governor]] of the state is [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Robert J. Bentley|Robert Bentley]]. The [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Alabama|lieutenant governor]] is Republican [[Kay Ivey]]. The [[judicial branch]] is responsible for interpreting the [[Alabama Constitution|Constitution]] and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The highest court is the [[Supreme Court of Alabama]]. The Chief Justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican [[Roy Moore]]. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. The statewide officials, such as the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Attorney General, and other constitutional offices take office in the following January.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislature.state.al.us/misc/legislativeprocess/legislativeprocess_ml.html|title= Alabama's Legislative Process |first= McDowell |last= Lee|year= 2009|publisher= State of Alabama}}</ref> ===Taxes=== Alabama levies a 2, 4, or 5 percent personal income tax, depending upon the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their federal income tax from their Alabama state tax, and can do so even if taking the standard deduction. Taxpayers who file itemized deductions are also allowed to deduct federal Social Security and Medicare taxes. The state's general sales tax rate is 4%.<ref>{{Wayback|date=20070520231150 |url=http://www.taxadmin.org/fta/rate/sl_sales.html |title=Comparison of State and Local Retail Sales Taxes}}. taxadmin.org, July 2004, Retrieved December 18, 2013.</ref> Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases.<ref>[http://revenue.alabama.gov/publications/business-taxes/sales/Sales_Tax--Sales_Tax_Brochure.pdf Sales Tax Brochure]. State of Alabama. Retrieved December 18, 2013.</ref> For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means that a diner in Mobile would pay a 11% tax on a meal. {{As of|1999}}, sales and excise taxes in Alabama account for 51% of all state and local revenue, compared with an average of about 36% nationwide.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama is one of 15 states that levies a tax on food at the same rate as other goods. Alabama's income tax on poor working families is among the highest in the U.S.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama is the only state that levies income tax on a family of four with income as low as $4,600, which is barely one-quarter of the federal poverty line.<ref name="cbpp.org"/> Alabama's threshold is the lowest among the 41 states and the District of Columbia with income taxes.<ref name="cbpp.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1812 |title=Reducing Alabama's Income Tax on Working-Poor Families: Two Options |date= April 14, 1999 |publisher=Cbpp.org |accessdate=October 24, 2010}}</ref> The corporate income tax rate is currently 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taxfoundation.org/files/sl_burden_alabama-2007-04-04.pdf |title=Alabama State Local Tax Burden Compared to U.S. Average (1970–2007) |accessdate=May 30, 2007 |format=PDF |work=Tax Foundation|archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070605100516/http://www.taxfoundation.org/files/sl_burden_alabama-2007-04-04.pdf| archivedate= June 5, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Property tax]]es are the lowest in the U.S. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes. Since Alabama's tax structure largely depends on consumer spending, it is subject to high variable budget structure. For example, in 2003 Alabama had an annual budget deficit as high as $670&nbsp;million. ===Local and county government=== {{Alabama County Labelled Map|align=right|width=300}} {{see also|List of counties in Alabama}} Alabama has 67 [[county (United States)|counties]]. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission, which normally also has executive authority in the county. Because of the restraints placed in the [[Alabama Constitution]], all but seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning. On November 9, 2011, Jefferson County declared bankruptcy.<ref>[http://jeffconline.jccal.org/home/news/photo/1517060216/ News - View Article]</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/19/business/jefferson-county-ala-falls-off-the-bankruptcy-cliff.html |work=The New York Times |title=Jefferson County, Ala., Falls Off the Bankruptcy Cliff |date=February 18, 2012 |accessdate= }}</ref> Alabama is an [[alcoholic beverage control state]]. The state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. Some counties and municipalities are "dry", which bans all sales of alcohol in those areas. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Rank !! County !! Population <br />(2010 Census) !! Seat !! Largest city |- | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | [[Jefferson County, Alabama|Jefferson]] | style="text-align:center;"| 658,466 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] | style="text-align:center;"| Birmingham |- | style="text-align:center;"| 2 | [[Mobile County, Alabama|Mobile]] | style="text-align:center;"| 412,992 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] | style="text-align:center;"| Mobile |- | style="text-align:center;"| 3 | [[Madison County, Alabama|Madison]] | style="text-align:center;"| 334,811 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] | style="text-align:center;"| Huntsville |- | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | [[Montgomery County, Alabama|Montgomery]] | style="text-align:center;"| 229,363 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] | style="text-align:center;"| Montgomery |- | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | [[Shelby County, Alabama|Shelby]] | style="text-align:center;"| 195,085 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Columbiana, Alabama|Columbiana]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Hoover, Alabama|Hoover]] (part) <br /> [[Alabaster, Alabama|Alabaster]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 6 | [[Tuscaloosa County, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] | style="text-align:center;"| 194,656 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] | style="text-align:center;"| Tuscaloosa |- | style="text-align:center;"| 7 | [[Baldwin County, Alabama|Baldwin]] | style="text-align:center;"| 182,265 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Bay Minette, Alabama|Bay Minette]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Daphne, Alabama|Daphne]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 8 | [[Lee County, Alabama|Lee]] | style="text-align:center;"| 140,247 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Opelika, Alabama|Opelika]] | style="text-align:center;"| [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] |- | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | [[Morgan County, Alabama|Morgan]] | style="text-align:center;"| 119,490 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]] | style="text-align:center;"| Decatur |- | style="text-align:center;"| 10 | [[Calhoun County, Alabama|Calhoun]] | style="text-align:center;"| 118,572 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Anniston, Alabama|Anniston]] | style="text-align:center;"| Anniston |- | style="text-align:center;"| 11 | [[Etowah County, Alabama|Etowah]] | style="text-align:center;"| 104,303 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Gadsden, Alabama|Gadsden]] | style="text-align:center;"| Gadsden |} ===Politics=== [[File:Robert Bentley.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Robert J. Bentley]], governor since January 17, 2011.]] [[File:Kay Ivey.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Kay Ivey]], lieutenant governor.]] During [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In 1874, the political coalition known as the [[Redeemers]] took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the African American vote. After 1890, a coalition of White politicians passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disfranchised African Americans also disfranchised poor Whites, however. By 1941 more Whites than African Americans had been disfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000, although the impact was greater on the African-American community, as almost all of its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law. From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state. The result was a rural minority that dominated state politics until a series of court cases required redistricting in 1972. Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]], when racist Whites bureaucratically, and at times, violently resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Democrat [[George Wallace]], the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure. Only with the passage of the Federal [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]<ref name="cra64"/> and [[Voting Rights Act]] of 1965 did African Americans regain suffrage, among other civil rights. In 2007, the [[Alabama Legislature]] passed, and Republican Governor [[Bob Riley]] signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the [[Alabama State Capitol]], which housed Congress of the [[Confederate States of America]].<ref>{{Cite news |first=Phillip |last=Rawls |title=Alabama offers an apology for slavery |work=The Virginian Pilot |publisher=Landmark Communications |date=June 1, 2007}}</ref> In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years.<ref name="Southerner">{{cite web |url= http://www.southerner.net/v1n1_99/coverstory1.html |title= The New South Rises, Again |date= Spring 1999 |work= Civil Rights: Law and History |publisher= Southerner.net |accessdate =September 23, 2006}}</ref> ===Elections=== {{main|Elections in Alabama}} ====State elections==== With the disfranchisement of African Americans, the state became part of the "[[Solid South]]", a system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] became essentially the only political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100&nbsp;years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party [[primary election|primary]], with generally only token [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] challengers running in the General Election. Republicans hold all nine seats on the [[Alabama Supreme Court]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2009/05/sue_bell_cobb_considering_runn.html |title=Sue Bell Cobb considering running for governor - Breaking News from The Birmingham News |publisher=Blog.al.com |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> and all ten seats on the state appellate courts. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats. This change also began, likely in part, due to the same perception by voters of Democratic party efforts to disenfranchise voters again in 1994. In that general election, the then-incumbent Chief Justice of Alabama, [[Ernest C. Hornsby]], refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican [[Perry O. Hooper, Sr.]]. Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. This ultimately led to a collapse of support for Democrats at the ballot box in the next three or four election cycles. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench. Republicans hold all seven of the [[Political party strength in Alabama|statewide elected executive]] branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the [[Alabama State Board of Education]]. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. Democrats hold one of the three seats on the Alabama Public Service Commission.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psc.state.al.us/commissioners.htm |title=Commissioners |publisher=Psc.state.al.us |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Special |url=http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2008/11/lucy_baxley_wins_alabama_publi.html |title= Lucy Baxley wins Alabama Public Service Commission presidency, but recount possible |publisher=Birmingham News via al.com |date=November 5, 2008 |accessdate=August 7, 2009| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090802212747/http://blog.al.com/spotnews/2008/11/lucy_baxley_wins_alabama_publi.html| archivedate= August 2, 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Jeff Amy, Press-Register |url=http://blog.al.com/live/2010/11/public_service_commission.html |title=Public Service Commission: Twinkle Cavanaugh, Terry Dunn join GOP sweep |publisher= al.com |accessdate=June 1, 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110513135614/http://blog.al.com/live/2010/11/public_service_commission.html| archivedate= May 13, 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Only two Republican Lieutenant Governors have been elected since Reconstruction, one is [[Kay Ivey]], the current Lieutenant Governor. ====Local elections==== Many local offices (County Commissioners, Boards of Education, Tax Assessors, Tax Collectors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats. Local elections in most rural counties are generally decided in the Democratic primary and local elections in metropolitan and suburban counties are generally decided in the Republican Primary, although there are exceptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=1&year=2006&f=0&off=5&elect=1 |title=2006 Gubernatorial Democratic Primary Election Results – Alabama |publisher=Uselectionatlas.org |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=1&year=2006&f=0&off=5&elect=2 |title=2006 Gubernatorial Republican Primary Election Results – Alabama |publisher=Uselectionatlas.org |date=February 15, 2007 |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> Alabama's 67 County Sheriffs are elected in partisan races and Democrats still retain the majority of those posts. The current split is 42 [[Alabama Democratic Party|Democrats]], 24 [[Alabama Republican Party|Republicans]], and one Independent (Choctaw).<ref>{{cite web|title=2011-2015 Alabama Sheriffs|url=http://alabamasheriffs.com/uploads/20130409/85e6648587de92a5a9886ebc22a20009.pdf|publisher=Alabama Sheriffs Association|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over rural and less populated counties and the majority of Republican sheriffs preside over more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alabamasheriffs.com/?PageID=131&IsNav=true |title=Association |publisher=Alabama Sheriffs |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> Two Alabama counties (Montgomery and Calhoun) with a population of over 100,000 have Democratic sheriffs and five [[Counties of Alabama|Alabama counties]] with a population of under 75,000 have Republican sheriffs (Autauga, Coffee, Dale, Coosa, and Blount).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alabamasheriffs.com/Image.aspx?ImageID=11481&Title=2007-2011+Alabama+Sheriffs |title=2007–2011 Alabama Sheriffs |publisher=Alabamasheriffs.com |accessdate=August 7, 2009}}</ref> As of 2012, the state of Alabama has one female sheriff, in [[Morgan County, Alabama]], and nine African American sheriffs.<ref>Alabama Sheriffs Association</ref> ====Federal elections==== The state's two [[United States Senate|U.S. senators]] are [[Jeff Sessions|Jefferson B. Sessions III]] and [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]], both Republicans. Shelby was originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1986 and re-elected in 1992, but switched parties in November 1994. In the [[U.S. House of Representatives]], the state is represented by seven members, six of whom are Republicans: ([[Jo Bonner]], [[Mike D. Rogers]], [[Robert Aderholt]], [[Morris J. Brooks]], [[Martha Roby]], and [[Spencer Bachus]]) and one Democrat: [[Terri Sewell]]. {{Further2|[[United States presidential election in Alabama, 2004]]}} ==Education== {{Main|Education in Alabama}} ===Primary and secondary education=== [[File:Vestavia Hills High School.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vestavia Hills High School]] in the suburbs of Birmingham]] Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the overview of the [[Alabama State Board of Education]] as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,541 individual schools provide education for 743,364 elementary and secondary students.<ref name="qfacts">{{cite web|url= http://www.alsde.edu/general/quick_facts.pdf |title= Alabama Education Quick Facts 2007 |accessdate =August 11, 2007 |format= PDF| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070726181529/http://www.alsde.edu/general/quick_facts.pdf| archivedate= July 26, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year.<ref name="qfacts"/> In 2007, over 82&nbsp;percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National [[No Child Left Behind]] law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama. In 2004, 23 percent of schools met AYP.<ref name="AYP">{{cite web|url= http://www.alsde.edu/Accountability/2007Reports/Press/2007AYPNewsRelease.pdf |title= Eighty-Two Percent of Alabama Schools Make AYP While Increasing Annual Measurable Objectives |accessdate =August 11, 2007 |format= PDF}}</ref> While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data, Alabama's high school graduation rate—75%—is the fourth lowest in the U.S. (after Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi).<ref>http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-24.pdf</ref> The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees.<ref>[http://www.censusscope.org/us/s1/chart_education.html Education Statistics]. CensusScope.org</ref> ===Colleges and universities=== {{Main|List of colleges and universities in Alabama}} [[File:Harrison-plaza2.jpg|thumb|left|Harrison Plaza at the [[University of North Alabama]] in Florence. The school was chartered as LaGrange College by the [[Alabama Legislature]] in 1830.]] Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are three medical schools ([[University of Alabama School of Medicine]], [[University of South Alabama]] and [[Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine]]), two veterinary colleges ([[Auburn University]] and [[Tuskegee University]]), a dental school ([[University of Alabama School of Dentistry]]), an optometry college ([[University of Alabama at Birmingham]]), two pharmacy schools ([[Auburn University]] and [[Samford University]]), and five law schools ([[University of Alabama School of Law]], [[Birmingham School of Law]], [[Cumberland School of Law]], [[Miles Law School]], and the [[Thomas Goode Jones School of Law]]). Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the [[Alabama Commission on Higher Education]] and the [[Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education]]. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs.<ref name="ache">{{cite web|work= Alabama Commission on Higher Education |title= Directory of Alabama Colleges and Universities |url= http://www.ache.alabama.gov/Colleges&Universities/Directory.htm |accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> [[File:William J. Samford Hall.jpg|thumb|right|William J. Samford Hall at [[Auburn University]] in Auburn]] The largest single campus is the [[University of Alabama]], located in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]], with 33,602 enrolled for fall 2012.<ref>[http://www.tuscaloosanews.com/article/20120912/NEWS/120919931/1291?Title=University-of-Alabama-sees-record-student-enrollment-for-2012 University of Alabama sees record student enrollment for 2012]. TuscaloosaNews.com (September 12, 2012). Retrieved on July 12, 2013.</ref> [[Troy University]] was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses ([[Troy, Alabama|Troy]], [[Dothan, Alabama|Dothan]], [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], and [[Phenix City, Alabama|Phenix City]]), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public [[University of North Alabama]] in [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] and the Catholic Church-affiliated [[Spring Hill College]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], both founded in 1830.<ref name="una">{{cite web |url=http://www.una.edu/makinghistory/ |title=History in the making |publisher=University of North Alabama |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/61742e5Ls |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref name="shc">{{cite web |url=http://www.shc.edu/about-shc/employment/hiring/the-mission-statement-of-spring-hill-college/ |title=The Mission Statement of Spring Hill College: History |publisher=Spring Hill College |accessdate=July 22, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/61746iAFs |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Accreditation of academic programs is through the [[Southern Association of Colleges and Schools]] (SACS) as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the [[Association for Biblical Higher Education]] (ABHE),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://directory.abhe.org/default.aspx?status=Member |title=Members |publisher=Association for Biblical Higher Education |accessdate=June 24, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6174AJ383 |archivedate=August 21, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> the [[Council on Occupational Education]] (COE),<ref>{{cite web|title=Membership Directory|url=http://www.council.org/forms/acc_membership.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=Council on Operational Education|accessdate=August 5, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/60iiYeIyB|archivedate=August 5, 2011|date=November 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref> and the [[Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools]] (ACICS).<ref>{{cite web|title=ACICS Website Directory|url=http://www.acics.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/7_20_09.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools|accessdate=August 5, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/60iiMuVRG|archivedate=August 5, 2011|date=July 20, 2009|deadurl=no}}</ref> According to the 2011 [[U.S. News & World Report]], Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America (University of Alabama at 31, [[Auburn University]] at 36, and [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] at 73).<ref>{{cite web|title=Top Public Schools|url=http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/top-public/spp%2B50|publisher=U.S. News and World Report|accessdate=September 17, 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/61mTinjiN|archivedate=September 17, 2011}}</ref> According to the 2012 U.S. News & World Report, Alabama had four tier 1 universities ([[University of Alabama]], [[Auburn University]], [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] and [[University of Alabama in Huntsville]]).<ref>[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities/page+29 National University Rankings | Top National Universities | US News Best Colleges]. Colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com. Retrieved on July 12, 2013.</ref> ==Sports== [[File:Hank Aaron Stadium.jpg|thumb|[[Hank Aaron Stadium]] in Mobile]] [[File:Von Braun Center Arena Dec10.jpg|thumb|[[Von Braun Center]] in Huntsville]] [[File:Hoover Met CIMG6404.JPG|thumb|[[Regions Park]] in Hoover]] ===Teams=== {{Main|List of professional sports teams in Alabama}} Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including four [[minor league baseball]] teams. {| class="sortable wikitable" |- ! Club ! City ! Sport ! League ! Venue |- | [[Alabama Hammers]] | [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] | [[Indoor American football|Indoor football]] | [[Southern Indoor Football League]] | [[Von Braun Center]] |- | [[Birmingham Barons]] | Birmingham | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] | [[Regions Field]] |- | [[Birmingham Sabers]] | Birmingham | Basketball | [[Continental Basketball League]] | [[Altamont School]] |- | [[Dixie Derby Girls]] | Huntsville | [[Roller derby]] | [[Women's Flat Track Derby Association]] | [[Von Braun Center]] |- | [[Huntsville Havoc]] | Huntsville | [[Ice hockey]] | [[Southern Professional Hockey League]] | [[Von Braun Center]] |- | [[Huntsville Stars]] | Huntsville | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] | [[Joe W. Davis Stadium]] |- | [[Mobile BayBears]] | Mobile | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] | [[Hank Aaron Stadium]] |- | [[Mobile Bay Hurricanes]] | Mobile | Basketball | [[American Basketball Association (2000–present)|American Basketball Association]] | [[Davidson High School (Mobile, Alabama)|Davidson High School]] |- | [[Montgomery Biscuits]] | Montgomery | Baseball | [[Southern League (baseball)|Southern League]] | [[Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium]] |- | [[Rocket City United]] | Madison | Soccer | [[National Premier Soccer League]] | Madison City Schools Stadium |- | [[Rolling Arsenal of Derby]] | Huntsville | [[Roller derby]] | [[Women's Flat Track Derby Association Apprentice]] | Skate Odyssey |- | [[Tennessee Valley Tigers]] | Huntsville | [[American Football|Football]] | [[Independent Women's Football League]] | [[Milton Frank Stadium]] |- | [[Tragic City Rollers]] | Birmingham | [[Roller derby]] | [[Women's Flat Track Derby Association]] | Zamora Shrine Temple |} ===Venues=== Alabama has four of the world's largest stadiums by seating capacity: [[Talladega Superspeedway]] in [[Talladega, Alabama|Talladega]], [[Bryant-Denny Stadium]] in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]], [[Jordan-Hare Stadium]] in [[Auburn, Alabama|Auburn]] and [[Legion Field]] in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]]. [[File:Bryant-Denny Stadium by Highsmith 01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bryant-Denny Stadium]] at the [[University of Alabama]] in Tuscaloosa.]] The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports complex hosts a series of [[NASCAR]] events. It has a seating capacity of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Bryant-Denny Stadium serves as the home of the [[University of Alabama]] football team has a seating capacity of 101,821.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bryant-Denny Stadium|url=http://www.rolltide.com/facilities/bryant-denny.html|work=RollTide.com|publisher=University of Alabama|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> It is the fifth largest stadium in America and the eighth largest non-racing stadium in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_menu/stadium_list/100000.shtml |title=Stadium List: 100 000+ Stadiums |publisher=World Stadiums |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the [[Auburn University]] football team and has a seating capacity of 87,451.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jordan-Hare Stadium|url=http://www.auburntigers.com/facilities/jordan_hare_stadium.html|work=Auburn Athletics|publisher=Auburn University|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> It is the [[List of NCAA Division I FBS football stadiums|twelfth largest]] college football stadium in America. Legion Field is home for the [[UAB Blazers]] football program and the [[Papajohns.com Bowl]]. It seats 80,601.<ref>{{cite web|title=Legion Field|url=http://www.uabsports.com/tickets/albr-tickets-legion.html#Info|work=UABSports.com|publisher=University of Alabama at Birmingham|accessdate=July 28, 2013}}</ref> [[Ladd-Peebles Stadium]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] serves as the home of the [[Senior Bowl|NCAA Senior Bowl]], [[GoDaddy.com Bowl]], Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic and home of the [[University of South Alabama]] football team. Ladd-Peebles Stadium opened in 1948 and seats 40,646.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laddpeeblesstadium.com/ |title=Welcome to Ladd Peebles Stadium |publisher=Laddpeeblesstadium.com |date=January 23, 2012 |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> In 2009, Bryant-Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the [[Alabama High School Athletic Association]] state football championship games, known as the Super Six. Bryant-Denny hosts the Super Six in odd-numbered years, with Jordan-Hare taking the games in even-numbered years. Previously, the Super Six was held at Legion Field in Birmingham.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.al.com/sentell/2009/04/super_6_byebye_birmingham.html |title=Super 6 leaving Birmingham for Bryant-Denny, Jordan-Hare stadiums &#124; al.com |publisher=Blog.al.com |accessdate=February 10, 2012}}</ref> ==Transportation== [[File:Montgomery Regional Airport New Terminal.JPG|thumb|Terminal at the [[Montgomery Regional Airport]] in Montgomery.]] [[File:I20I59Birmingham.JPG|thumb|[[Interstate 59]] (co-signed with [[Interstate 20]]) approaching [[Interstate 65]] in downtown Birmingham.]] [[File:Mobile Alabama harbor aerial view.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the port of Mobile.]] {{Main|Transportation in Alabama}} ===Aviation=== {{Main|Aviation in Alabama}} Major airports with sustained commercial operations in Alabama include [[Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport]] (BHM), [[Huntsville International Airport]] (HSV), [[Dothan Regional Airport]] (DHN), [[Mobile Regional Airport]] (MOB), [[Montgomery Regional Airport]] (MGM), and [[Northwest Alabama Regional Airport|Muscle Shoals – Northwest Alabama Regional Airport]] (MSL). ===Rail=== For rail transport, [[Amtrak]] schedules the Crescent, a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with stops at Anniston, Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa. ===Roads=== Alabama has five major interstate roads that cross the state: [[I-65]] runs north–south roughly through the middle of the state; I-59/I-20 travels from the central west border to Birmingham, where [[I-59]] continues to the north-east corner of the state and [[I-20]] continues east towards Atlanta; [[I-85]] originates in Montgomery and runs east-northeast to the Georgia border, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and [[Interstate 10 in Alabama|I-10]] traverses the southernmost portion of the state, running from west to east through Mobile. Another interstate road, [[Interstate 22|I-22]], is currently under construction. When completed around 2014 it will connect Birmingham with [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: [[Interstate 165|I-165]] in Mobile, [[Interstate 359|I-359]] in Tuscaloosa, [[Interstate 459|I-459]] around Birmingham, [[Interstate 565|I-565]] in Huntsville, and [[Interstate 759|I-759]] in Gadsden. A sixth route, [[Interstate 685|I-685]], will be created when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will designated as [[Interstate 422|I-422]]. Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as [[U.S. Route 11|US 11]], [[U.S. Route 29|US 29]], [[U.S. Route 31|US 31]], [[U.S. Route 43|US 43]], [[U.S. Route 45|US 45]], [[U.S. Route 72|US 72]], [[U.S. Route 78|US 78]], [[U.S. Route 80|US 80]], [[U.S. Route 82|US 82]], [[U.S. Route 84|US 84]], [[U.S. Route 90|US 90]], [[U.S. Route 98|US 98]], [[U.S. Route 231|US 231]], [[U.S. Route 278|US 278]], [[U.S. Route 280|US 280]], [[U.S. Route 331|US 331]], [[U.S. Route 411|US 411]], and [[U.S. Route 431|US 431]]. There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]; Tuscaloosa Bypass in [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]]; Emerald Mountain Expressway in [[Wetumpka, Alabama|Wetumpka]]; and Beach Express in [[Orange Beach, Alabama|Orange Beach]]. In April 2011, a study known as the American State Litter Scorecard ranked Alabama fifth (behind Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Nevada) among the "Worst" states for overall poor effectiveness and quality of its statewide public space cleanliness—primarily roadway and adjacent litter removals—from state and related efforts.<ref>{{cite web|last=Spacek|first=Steve L.|title=The American State Litter Scorecard 2011: New Rankings for an Increasingly Environmentally Concerned Population|url=http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=stevespacek|publisher=Selected Works|accessdate=July 22, 2013|date=April 2011}}</ref> ===Ports=== The [[Port of Mobile]], Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]] with inland waterway access to the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] by way of the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]]. The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009.<ref name="tonstraffic">{{cite web|title=Table 1086. Top U.S. Ports by Tons of Traffic: 2009 |work=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers | url=http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s1087.pdf | accessdate=July 22, 2013}}</ref> The newly expanded [[container terminal]] at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011.<ref name="containers">{{cite web|title=U.S. Waterborne Container Traffic by Port/Waterway in 2011 (Loaded and Empty TEUS) |work=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers| url=http://www.navigationdatacenter.us/wcsc/by_porttons11.html |accessdate=July 22, 2013}}</ref> The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico. Water ports of Alabama, listed from north to south: {| class="wikitable" |+ ! Port name ! Location ! Connected to |- | Port of [[Florence, Alabama|Florence]] ||''[[Florence, Alabama|Florence]]/[[Muscle Shoals, Alabama|Muscle Shoals]]'', on ''[[Pickwick Lake]]''||[[Tennessee River]] |- | [[Port of Decatur]] || ''[[Decatur, Alabama|Decatur]]'', on ''[[Wheeler Lake]]''||Tennessee River |- | Port of [[Guntersville, Alabama|Guntersville]] ||''[[Guntersville, Alabama|Guntersville]]'', on ''[[Lake Guntersville]]''||Tennessee River |- | Port of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] || ''[[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]]'', on ''[[Black Warrior River]]'' || [[Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway|Tenn-Tom Waterway]] |- | Port of [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] ||''[[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]]'', on ''Black Warrior River''||Tenn-Tom Waterway |- | Port of [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] || ''[[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]'', on ''[[R.E."Bob" Woodruff Lake|Woodruff Lake]]'' || [[Alabama River]] |- | [[Port of Mobile]] || ''[[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]'', on ''[[Mobile Bay]]'' || [[Gulf of Mexico]] |} {{clear}} ==See also== {{portal|Alabama}} * [[Outline of Alabama]] &ndash; organized list of topics about Alabama * [[Index of Alabama-related articles]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== :''For a detailed bibliography, see the [[History of Alabama]].'' * Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. ''Alabama: The History of a Deep South State'' (1994) * Flynt, Wayne. ''Alabama in the Twentieth Century'' (2004) * Owen Thomas M. ''History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography'' 4 vols. 1921. * Jackson, Harvey H. ''Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State'' (2004) * Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" ''Alabama Review'' 2002 55(4): 243–274. ISSN 0002-4341 * Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974). Information on politics and economics 1960–72. * Williams, Benjamin Buford. ''A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century'' 1979. * WPA. ''Guide to Alabama'' (1939) ==External links== <!------------------------ {{No more links}} ----------------------------- | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | --------------------------- {{No more links}}-----------------------------> {{Sister project links|voy=Alabama|Alabama|s=Wikisource:Alabama}} * [http://www.alabama.gov/ Alabama.gov] – Official State Government Website * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/alabama/index.html Alabama State Guide, from the Library of Congress] * [http://www.alarc.org/ Alabama Association of Regional Councils] * [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AL Energy Data & Statistics for Alabama from the U.S. Department of Energy] * [http://www.touralabama.org/ TourAlabama.org] – Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel * [http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html All About Alabama], at the [[Alabama Department of Archives and History]] * [http://www.alabamamosaic.org/ AlabamaMosaic], a digital repository of materials on Alabama's history, culture, places, and people * [http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975] – at the Alabama Legislature site * {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Alabama|Alabama}} * [http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=AL USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alabama] * [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts] from the U.S. Census Bureau * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/statefacts/al.htm Alabama State Fact Sheet] from the U.S. Department of Agriculture * {{osmrelation-inline|161950}} {{clear}} {{Navboxes|title= <span style="font-size:11pt;">Topics related to Alabama</span> <br /> ''The Heart of Dixie'' |list = {{Alabama|expanded}} {{Alabama cities and mayors of 100,000 population}} {{Confederate States of America}} {{Protected Areas of Alabama}} |state=expanded}} {{United States political divisions}} {{United States topics}} {{Geographic location |Northwest = |North= {{flag|Tennessee}} |Northeast = |West= {{flag|Mississippi}} |Centre= '' Alabama'': [[Outline of Alabama|Outline]] • [[Index of Alabama-related articles|Index]] |East= {{flag|Georgia (U.S. state)|name=Georgia}} |Southwest= [[Gulf of Mexico]] |South= {{flag|Florida}} |Southeast = }} {{succession | preceded= [[Illinois]] | office= [[List of U.S. states by date of statehood]] | years= Admitted on December 14, 1819 (22nd) | succeeded= [[Maine]] }} {{Coord|32.7|-86.7|type:adm2nd_dim:1000000_source:USGS|display=title}}<!-- geographic center of state --> {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2013}} [[Category:Alabama| ]] [[Category:Former French colonies]] [[Category:Former Spanish colonies]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1819]] [[Category:States of the Confederate States of America]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:Southern United States]] {{Link FA|mk}} tscd6xiwd6yi1a8f4vqszkyxnfpig44 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 304 234930323 234928481 2008-08-29T05:09:56Z Seba5618 2155335 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/75.111.240.218|75.111.240.218]]. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) #REDIRECT [[Africa]] {{R from CamelCase}} 0qswh9oyl5ued23ikcgzn8ydbh3zq8e wikitext text/x-wiki 0 305 602453119 602453077 2014-04-02T18:29:22Z Katieh5584 403690 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/162.127.129.100|162.127.129.100]] ([[User talk:162.127.129.100|talk]]) to last revision by Philip Trueman ([[WP:HG|HG]]) {{Redirect|Achilleus|the emperor with this name|Achilleus (emperor)|other uses|Achilles (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Achilles departure Eretria Painter CdM Paris 851.jpg|thumb|350px|Achilles and the [[Nereid]] Cymothoe: Attic red-figure [[kantharos]] from [[Volci]] ([[Cabinet des Médailles]], Bibliothèque nationale, Paris)]] [[File:Achilles-01.jpg|thumb|Head of Achilles depicted on a 4th-century BC coin from [[Pelasgia, Phthiotis|Kremaste]], [[Phthia]]. Reverse: [[Thetis]], wearing [[Chiton (costume)|chiton]] and holding shield of Achilles with his AX monogram.]] In [[Greek mythology]], '''Achilles''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|ɪ|l|iː|z}}; {{lang-grc|Ἀχιλλεύς}}, ''Akhilleus'', {{IPA-el|akʰillěws|pron}}) was a [[Greeks|Greek]] hero of the [[Trojan War]] and the central character and greatest warrior of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. Achilles was said to be a [[demigod]]; his mother was the nymph [[Thetis]], and his father, [[Peleus]], was the king of the [[Myrmidons]]. Achilles’ most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan hero [[Hector]] outside the gates of [[Troy]]. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the ''Iliad'', other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with a poem by [[Statius]] in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel. Because of his death from a small wound in the heel, the term ''[[Achilles' heel]]'' has come to mean a person's point of weakness. == Etymology == Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of {{lang|grc|ἄχος}} (''akhos'') "grief" and {{lang|grc|λαός}} (''Laos'') "a people, tribe, nation, etc." In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the ''Iliad'' (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of ''kleos'' (glory, usually glory in war). ''Laos'' has been construed by [[Gregory Nagy]], following Leonard Palmer, to mean ''a corps of soldiers'', a [[muster (military)|muster]]. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: When the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. The name Achilleus was a common and attested name among the Greeks soon after the 7th century BC.<ref>[http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/search?patt=*AXIL&first=250 Epigraphical database] gives 476 matches for Ἀχιλ-.The earliest ones: [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/oi?ikey=27810&bookid=6&region=2&subregion=1 Corinth 7th c. BC],[http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/oi?ikey=238250&bookid=118&region=3&subregion=7 Delphi 530 BC], Attica and Elis 5th c. BC.</ref> It was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (''Achilleía'') attested in Attica in the 4th century BC ([[Inscriptiones Graecae|IG]] II² 1617) and, in the form ''Achillia'', on a [[Female gladiator#Halicarnassus|stele in Halicarnassus]] as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon". == Birth == [[File:Peter Paul Rubens 181.jpg|thumb|''Thetis Dipping the Infant Achilles into the River Styx'' (ca. 1625), [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]] Achilles was the son of the [[Nereid]] [[Thetis]] and [[Peleus]], the king of the [[Myrmidons]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until [[Prometheus]], the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.<ref>[[Aeschylus]], ''Prometheus Bound'' 755–768; [[Pindar]], ''Nemean'' 5.34–37, ''Isthmian'' 8.26–47; ''[[Poeticon astronomicon]]'' (ii.15)</ref> There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: in ''[[Argonautica]]'' (iv.760) Zeus' sister and wife [[Hera]] alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected him. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god [[Nereus]], was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus.<!--the following psychological interpretation has no counterpart in the myths:"Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal. So Hera recommended that she marry [[Peleus]], as he was as near to a mortal as she was ever going to get."--> [[File:The Education of Achilles, by James Barry.jpg|thumb|left|''The Education of Achilles'' (ca. 1772), by [[James Barry (painter)|James Barry]]]] According to the ''[[Achilleid]]'', written by [[Statius]] in the 1st century AD, and to no surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal, by dipping him in the river [[Styx]]. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him, his heel<ref>{{cite book| last = Burgess| first = Jonathan S.| title = The Death and Afterlife of Achilles| url = http://books.google.com/?id=Ko_YAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA9| accessdate = 5 February 2010| year = 2009| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press| location = Baltimore| isbn = 0-8018-9029-2| page = 9 }}</ref> (see [[Achilles heel]], [[Achilles' tendon]]). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire, to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage.<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], ''[[Argonautica]]'' 4.869–879.</ref> However, none of the sources before Statius makes any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the ''Iliad'' Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the [[Paeonian]] hero [[Asteropaeus]], son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood". Also, in the fragmentary poems of the [[Epic Cycle]] in which we can find description of the hero's death, ''[[Cypria]]'' (unknown author), ''[[Aithiopis]]'' by [[Arctinus of Miletus]], ''[[Little Iliad]]'' by Lesche of Mytilene, ''[[Iliou persis]]'' by [[Arctinus of Miletus]], there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness (heel); in the later vase paintings presenting Achilles' death, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his body. Peleus entrusted Achilles to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], on Mt. [[Pelion]], to be reared.<ref>[[Hesiod]], ''Catalogue of Women'', fr. 204.87–89 MW; ''Iliad'' 11.830-32</ref> == Achilles in the Trojan War == [[File:The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|''The Rage of Achilles'', by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]]]] The first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read: :{{lang|grc|μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος}} :{{lang|grc|οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν,}} :Sing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus' son Achilles, :the accursed rage that brought great suffering to the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]]. Achilles' consuming rage is at times wavering, but at other times he cannot be cooled. The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is an important theme of the narrative. According to the ''Iliad'', Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 [[Myrmidons]] (Book 2). He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon (Book 16). === Telephus === When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at [[Argos]], where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy. {{citation needed|date=February 2013}} According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' lost play about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis (ancient Greece)|Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. {{citation needed|date=February 2013}} === Troilus === According to the ''[[Cypria]]'' (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' Wrath), when the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of [[Aeneas]], sacked neighboring cities and killed [[Troilus]].<ref name="stoa.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.stoa.org/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Stoa:text:2003.01.0004 |title=Proclus' Summary of the Cypria |publisher=Stoa.org |date= |accessdate=9 March 2010}}</ref> In [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html |title=Dares' account of the destruction of Troy, Greek Mythology Link |publisher=Homepage.mac.com |date= |accessdate=9 March 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091229022803/http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html| archivedate= 29 December 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, [[Troilus]] was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King [[Priam]]'s (or sometimes [[Apollo]]) and [[Hecuba]]'s five legitimate sons. Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister [[Polyxena]], and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth&nbsp;– who refusing to yield found instead himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege.<ref>James Davidson, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v29/n14/davi02_.html "Zeus Be Nice Now"] in ''London Review of Books;'' 19 July 2007, access date 23 October 2007</ref> Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the [[First Vatican Mythographer]] claimed, Troy would have been invincible. === Achilles in the ''Iliad'' === {{main|Iliad}} [[File:AmbrosianIliadPict47Achilles.jpg|thumb|Achilles sacrificing to [[Zeus]], from the [[Ambrosian Iliad]], a 5th-century illuminated manuscript]] Homer's ''Iliad'' is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath is the central theme of the poem. The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after he is dishonored by [[Agamemnon]], the commander of the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaean]] forces. Agamemnon had taken a woman named [[Chryseis]] as his slave. Her father [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo]], begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet [[Calchas]] correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so and Calchas declares Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize [[Briseis]] be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonor of having his plunder and glory taken away (and as he says later, because he loved Briseis),<ref>''Iliad'' 9.334–343.</ref> with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At this same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honor. As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sent [[Odysseus]] and two other chieftains, [[Ajax (mythology)|Ajax]] and [[Phoenix (son of Amyntor)|Phoenix]], to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him, and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do. The Trojans, led by [[Hector]], subsequently pushed the Greek army back toward the beaches and assaulted the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, [[Patroclus]] leads the [[Myrmidons]] into battle wearing Achilles' armor, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. [[File:Triumph of Achilles in Corfu Achilleion.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Triumphant Achilles dragging Hector's lifeless body in front of the Gates of [[Troy]] (from a [[panoramic]] [[fresco]] on the upper level of the main hall of the [[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]]).]] After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from [[Antilochus]], the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death and holds many funeral games in his honor. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades [[Hephaestus]] to make new armor for him, in place of the armor that Patroclus had been wearing which was taken by Hector. The new armor includes the [[Shield of Achilles]], described in great detail in the poem Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god [[Scamander]] who becomes angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by [[Hera]] and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time alloted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before [[Athena]], in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, [[Deiphobus]], persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me".<ref>"The Iliad", Fagles translation. Penguin Books, 1991, p. 553.</ref> Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse behind his chariot during Patroclus' funeral games. With the assistance of the god [[Hermes]], Hector's father, [[Priam]], goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral. The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come. === Penthesilea === Achilles, after his temporary truce with Priam, fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazonian]] warrior queen [[Penthesilea]], but later grieved over her death. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her. As he grieved over the death of such a rare beauty, a notorious Greek jeerer by the name of [[Thersites]] laughed and mocked the great Achilles. === Memnon, and the fall of Achilles === [[File:Achilles thniskon in Corfu.jpg|thumb|Achilles dying in the gardens of the [[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]] in [[Corfu]]]] Following the death of Patroclus, Achilles' closest companion was Nestor's son [[Antilochus]]. When [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], king of [[Ethiopia (mythology)|Ethiopia]] slew Antilochus, Achilles once more obtained revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the ''Iliad'''s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the [[Epic Cycle|cyclic epic]] ''[[Aethiopis]]'', which was composed after the ''Iliad'', possibly in the 7th century B.C. The ''Aethiopis'' is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors. {{anchor|Fatalwound}} The death of Achilles, as predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, was brought about by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god [[Apollo]] guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. [[File:Aias body Akhilleus Staatliche Antikensammlungen 1884.jpg|thumb|Ajax carries off the body of Achilles: [[Attica|Attic]] black-figure ''[[lekythos]]'', ca. 510 BC, from Sicily ([[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]], Munich)]] All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valor, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games were held. He was represented in the ''Aethiopis'' as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the river [[Danube]]. Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, [[Polyxena]]. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus.<ref>Hamilton E. Mythology, New York: Penguin Books; 1969</ref> Paris was later killed by [[Philoctetes]] using the enormous bow of [[Heracles]]. === Fate of Achilles' armor === Achilles' armor was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Ajax (mythology)|Telamonian Ajax]] (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men came to a consensus in favor of Odysseus. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, Ajax was left so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armor to [[Neoptolemus]], the son of Achilles. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of [[Phaselis]], Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by [[Alexander the Great]], who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the ''Iliad'' with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear.<ref>"Alexander came to rest at Phaselis, a coastal city which was later renowned for the possession of Achilles' original spear." Robin Lane Fox, ''Alexander the Great'' 1973.144.</ref> But it was being shown in the time of [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] in the 2nd century AD.<ref>Pausanias, iii.3.6; see Christian Jacob and Anne Mullen-Hohl, "The Greek Traveler's Areas of Knowledge: Myths and Other Discourses in Pausanias' Description of Greece", ''Yale French Studies'' '''59''': Rethinking History: Time, Myth, and Writing (1980:65–85) esp. p. 81.</ref> == Achilles and Patroclus == {{main|Achilles and Patroclus}} The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the ''Iliad'', it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship, but commentators from [[classical antiquity]] to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek custom of ''paiderasteia'']]. In Plato's ''Symposium'', the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover.<ref>[[Plato]], ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Sym.+180a 180a]; the beauty of Achilles was a topic already broached at ''Iliad'' 2.673–4.</ref> But ancient Greek had no words to distinguish [[heterosexual]] and homosexual,<ref>[[Kenneth Dover]], ''Greek Homosexuality'' (Harvard University Press, 1978, 1989), p. 1 ''et passim''.</ref> and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Although epic decorum excluded explicit sexuality, the ''Iliad'' indicates that Achilles had sexual relations with women, with no direct evidence of sexual behaviors with Patroclus.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} == Worship of Achilles in antiquity == [[File:Wenceslas Hollar - Briseis and Achilles.jpg|thumb|right|Achilles and Briseis]] There was an archaic [[heroic cult]] of Achilles on the [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|White Island, ''Leuce'']], in the [[Black Sea]] off the modern coasts of [[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]], with a temple and an [[oracle]] which survived into the Roman period.<ref>Guy Hedreen, "The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine" ''Hesperia'' '''60'''.3 (July 1991), pp. 313–330.</ref> In the lost epic '' [[Aithiopis]]'', a continuation of the ''Iliad'' attributed to [[Arctinus|Arktinus of Miletos]], Achilles’ mother Thetis returned to mourn him and removed his ashes from the pyre and took them to Leuce at the mouths of the Danube. There the Achaeans raised a [[tumulus]] for him and celebrated funeral games. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny's]] ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''<ref>IV.27.1</ref> mentions a tumulus that is no longer evident (''Insula Akchillis tumulo eius viri clara''), on the island consecrated to him, located at a distance of fifty Roman miles from [[Peuce]] by the [[Danube Delta]], and the temple there. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles’ temple and his statue".<ref>III.19.11</ref> Ruins of a square temple 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823, but there has been no modern archeological work done on the island. [[Pomponius Mela]] tells that Achilles is buried in the island named Achillea, between Boristhene and Ister.<ref>''De situ orbis'', II, 7</ref> The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetus of Bithynia, who lived at the time of Domitian, writes that the island was called ''Leuce'' "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honor".<ref>''Orbis descriptio'', v. 541, quoted in Densuşianu 1913</ref> The ''[[Periplus Ponti Euxini|Periplus of the Euxine Sea]]'' gives the following details: "It is said that the goddess Thetis raised this island from the sea, for her son Achilles, who dwells there. Here is his temple and his statue, an archaic work. This island is not inhabited, and goats graze on it, not many, which the people who happen to arrive here with their ships, sacrifice to Achilles. In this temple are also deposited a great many holy gifts, craters, rings and precious stones, offered to Achilles in gratitude. One can still read inscriptions in Greek and Latin, in which Achilles is praised and celebrated. Some of these are worded in Patroclus’ honor, because those who wish to be favored by Achilles, honor Patroclus at the same time. There are also in this island countless numbers of sea birds, which look after Achilles’ temple. Every morning they fly out to sea, wet their wings with water, and return quickly to the temple and sprinkle it. And after they finish the sprinkling, they clean the hearth of the temple with their wings. Other people say still more, that some of the men who reach this island, come here intentionally. They bring animals in their ships, destined to be sacrificed. Some of these animals they slaughter, others they set free on the island, in Achilles’ honor. But there are others, who are forced to come to this island by sea storms. As they have no sacrificial animals, but wish to get them from the god of the island himself, they consult Achilles’ oracle. They ask permission to slaughter the victims chosen from among the animals that graze freely on the island, and to deposit in exchange the price which they consider fair. But in case the oracle denies them permission, because there is an oracle here, they add something to the price offered, and if the oracle refuses again, they add something more, until at last, the oracle agrees that the price is sufficient. And then the victim doesn’t run away any more, but waits willingly to be caught. So, there is a great quantity of silver there, consecrated to the hero, as price for the sacrificial victims. To some of the people who come to this island, Achilles appears in dreams, to others he would appear even during their navigation, if they were not too far away, and would instruct them as to which part of the island they would better anchor their ships". (quoted in Densuşianu) The heroic cult of Achilles on Leuce island was widespread in antiquity, not only along the sea lanes of the [[Black Sea|Pontic Sea]] but also in maritime cities whose economic interests were tightly connected to the riches of the Black Sea. Achilles from Leuce island was venerated as ''Pontarches'' the lord and master of the Pontic Sea, the protector of sailors and navigation. Sailors went out of their way to offer sacrifice. To Achilles of Leuce were dedicated a number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters: Achilleion in Messenia ([[Stephanus Byzantinus]]), Achilleios in Laconia ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], III.25,4) [[Nicolae Densuşianu]] (Densuşianu 1913) even though he recognized Achilles in the name of [[Aquileia]] and in the north arm of the Danube delta, the arm of Chilia ("Achileii"), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over Pontos, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law." Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias (III.19,13) reports that the [[Delphi|Delphic Pythia]] sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] (XXII.8) attributes the healing to waters (''aquae'') on the island. === Worship of Achilles in modern times: The Achilleion in Corfu === In the region of Gastouri (Γαστούρι) to the south of the city of [[Corfu]] Greece, Empress of Austria [[Elisabeth of Bavaria]] also known as Sissi built in 1890 a summer palace with Achilles as its central theme and it is a monument to [[platonism|platonic]] [[romanticism]]. The palace, naturally, was named after Achilles: ''[[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]]'' (Αχίλλειον). This elegant structure abounds with paintings and statues of Achilles both in the main hall and in the lavish gardens depicting the heroic and tragic scenes of the [[Trojan war]]. == Other stories == [[File:Achilles in Corfu.jpg|thumb|left|Achilles as guardian of the palace in the gardens of the [[Achilleion (Corfu)|Achilleion]] in Corfu. He gazes northward toward the city. The inscription in Greek reads: ΑΧΙΛΛΕΥΣ i.e. Achilles]] {{main|Achilles on Skyros}} Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hides the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]]. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamia (mythology)|Deidamia]], whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.<ref>[[Philostratus III|Philostratus Junior]], ''Imagines'' i; Scholiast on Homer's Iliad, xix. 326; [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 13.162ff., Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' iii. 13. 8, [[Statius]], [[Achilleid]], ii. 167ff.</ref> In book 11 of Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the [[Greek colonies]] on the Black Sea, the location of the mythical "White Island" which he was said to inhabit after his death, together with many other heroes. The kings of the [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epirote princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at [[Achilleion (Troad)#Tomb of Achilles|Achilleion]] while passing Troy.<ref>[[Arrian]], ''[[Anabasis Alexandri]]'' 1.12.1, [[Cicero]], ''Pro Archia Poeta'' 24.</ref> In AD 216 the Roman Emperor [[Caracalla]], while on his way to war against [[Parthia]], emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]] 78.16.7.</ref> Achilles fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazon]] [[Helene (Amazon)|Helene]]. Some also said he married [[Medea]], and that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades&nbsp;– as Hera promised Thetis in [[Apollonius of Rhodes|Apollonius]]' ''[[Argonautica]]''. In some versions of the myth, Achilles has a relationship with his captive [[Briseis]]. == Achilles in Greek tragedy == {{main|Achilleis (trilogy)}} The [[tragedy|Greek tragedian]] [[Aeschylus]] wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title ''Achilleis'' by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of [[Hector]] and eventual death when an arrow shot by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] and guided by [[Apollo]] punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the ''Achilleis'' and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the ''Achilleis'' trilogy, ''The Myrmidons'', focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today.<ref>Pantelis Michelakis, ''Achilles in Greek Tragedy'', 2002, p. 22</ref> In Plato's ''Symposium'', Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to revenge him.<ref>Plato, ''Symposium'', translated Benjamin Jowett, Dover Thrift Editions, page 8</ref> The tragedian [[Sophocles]] also wrote ''The Lovers of Achilles'', a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.<ref>S. Radt. ''Tragicorum Graecorum fragmenta'', vol. 4, (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977) frr. 149–157a.</ref> == Achilles in Greek philosophy == The philosopher [[Zeno of Elea]] centered one of [[Zeno's paradoxes|his paradoxes]] on an imaginary footrace between "[[Epithets in Homer#Individuals|swift-footed]]" [[Zeno's paradoxes#Achilles and the tortoise|Achilles and a tortoise]], by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions. == Achilles in later art == [[File:Leon Benouville The Wrath of Achilles.jpg|thumb|''The Wrath of Achilles'', by [[François-Léon Benouville]] (1821–1859) ([[Musée Fabre]])]] * Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]''. * Achilles appears in Dante's ''[[Inferno (Dante)|Inferno]]''. * Achilles is a major character in [[Madeline Miller]]'s debut novel, ''[[The Song of Achilles]]'' (2011), which won the 2012 [[Orange Prize for Fiction]]. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the ''[[Iliad]]''. * Achilles is a central and playable character in [[Tecmo Koei|KOEI]]'s ''[[Warriors: Legends of Troy]]''. * Achilles is mentioned in Tennyson's "[[Ulysses (poem)|Ulysses]]": "...we shall touch the happy isles and meet there the great Achilles whom we knew." * Achilles (Akhilles) is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s novel ''[[The Firebrand]]'' (1987): * Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in [[Colleen McCullough]]'s novel ''[[The Song of Troy]]'' (1998). * Achilles is the main character in [[David Malouf]]'s novel ''[[Ransom (Malouf novel)|Ransom]]'' (2009). * The [[ghost]] of Achilles appears in [[Rick Riordan|Rick Riordan's]] ''[[The Last Olympian]]'' (2009). The role of Achilles has been played in film by: * [[Piero Lulli]] in ''Ulysses'' (1955) * [[Stanley Baker]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (film)|Helen of Troy]]'' (1956) * [[Riley Ottenhof]] in ''Something about Zeus'' (1958) * [[Arturo Dominici]] in ''[[Guerra di Troia|La Guerra di Troia]]'' (1962) * [[Gordon Mitchell]] in ''[[The Fury of Achilles]]'' (1962) * [[Steve Davislim]] in ''[[La Belle Hélène (TV movie)|La Belle Hélène]]'' (TV, 1996) * [[Richard Trewett]] in the miniseries ''[[The Odyssey (TV miniseries)|The Odyssey]]'' (TV, 1997) * [[Joe Montana (actor)|Joe Montana]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (TV miniseries)|Helen of Troy]]'' (TV, 2003) * [[Brad Pitt]] in ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'' (2004) Achilles has frequently been mentioned in music: * [[Achilles (band)|Achilles]] is a [[hardcore punk|hardcore]] band. * "Achilles" is an [[oratorio]] by German composer [[Max Bruch]] (1885). * "Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy In Eight Parts", by [[Manowar (band)|Manowar]] (''[[The Triumph of Steel]]'', 1992). * ''[[Achilles Heel (album)|Achilles Heel]]'' is an album by [[Pedro the Lion]]. * "[[Achilles Last Stand]]", by [[Led Zeppelin]] (''[[Presence (album)|Presence]]'', 1976). * "Achilles' Revenge" is a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]]. * "Achilles' Wrath" is a concert piece by [[Sean O'Loughlin]]. * Achilles is referred to in [[Bob Dylan]]'s song "Temporary Like Achilles". * "Cry of Achilles" is the lead track off of [[Alter Bridge]]'s fourth album, Fortress. == Namesakes == * The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 - both as [[HMS Achilles|HMS ''Achilles'']] and with the French spelling [[HMS Achille|HMS ''Achille'']]. A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. * [[HMNZS Achilles (70)|HMNZS ''Achilles'']] was a [[Leander class cruiser (1931)|''Leander''-class cruiser]] which served with the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] in World War II. It became famous for its part in the [[Battle of the River Plate]], alongside {{HMS|Ajax|22|6}} and {{HMS|Exeter|68|6}}. In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–43 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948 but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand. * [[François Capois|Capois La Mort]], a slave who fought in the Haitian Revolution, was nicknamed the Black Achilles because of his heroic performance during the last battle against the French. * Prince Achileas-Andreas of Greece and Denmark, the grandson of the deposed [[Greece|Greek]] king, [[Constantine II of the Hellenes|Constantine II]]. * The character Achilles in [[Ender's Shadow]], by Orson Scott Card. Achilles shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude. * In the Star Trek universe, the Achilles Class is an advanced type of Federation battleship brought into service at the outbreak of the Dominion War, though not seen in any of the canon Star Trek TV series. * Achilles armor and valour is included in Titan Quest and TQ Immortal Throne. * the 2005 video game [[Spartan Total Warrior]] features two campaign missions located in the fictional buried city of Troy, with the story arch for this segment of the game culminating in the discovery of the Tomb of Achilles and the acquisition of the Spear of Achilles. == Notes == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == References == * [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' * Homer, [[Odyssey|''Odyssey'' XI]], 467–540 * Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' III, xiii, 5–8 * Apollodorus, [[Epitome III|''Epitome'' III]], 14-V, 7 * [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' XI, 217–265; XII, 580-XIII, 398 * [[Ovid]], [[Heroides|''Heroides'' III]] * [[Apollonius Rhodius]], [[Argonautica|''Argonautica'' IV]], 783–879 * [[Dante Alighieri]], ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'', Inferno, V. == Bibliography == * Ileana Chirassi Colombo, "Heroes Achilleus—Theos Apollon." In ''Il Mito Greco'', ed. Bruno Gentili & Giuseppe Paione, Rome, 1977; * Anthony Edwards: ** "Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis", ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies'', 26 (1985): pp.&nbsp;215–227 ; ** "Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic", ''Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie'', 171, Meisenheim, 1985; ** "Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory," ''Classical Quarterly'', 38 (1988): pp.&nbsp;25–30; * {{PWRE|I,1|221|245|Achilleus 1|Jakob Escher-Bürkli|RE:Achilleus 1}} * {{cite journal | author=Hedreen, Guy | title= The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine | journal=Hesperia | year=1991 | volume=60 | issue=3 | pages= 313–330 | doi= 10.2307/148068 | jstor=148068 | publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens}} * {{cite book | last=Kerenyi | first=Karl | authorlink=Károly Kerényi | title=The Heroes of the Greeks | publisher=Thames and Hudson | location=New York/London | year=1959}} * Hélène Monsacré, ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère'', Paris, Albin Michel, 1984 * [[Gregory Nagy]]: ** ''The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry'', Johns Hopkins University, 1999 (rev. edition); ** ''The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology''', ''Illinois Classical Studies'', 19, 1994; * Dale S. Sinos, ''The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic'', Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University; * Jonathan S. Burgess,'' The Death and Afterlife of Achilles'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009). == External links == {{Wikisource1911Enc}} {{Commons category|Achilles}} * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources] * [http://www.pelasgians.bigpondhosting.com/website1/04_01.htm ''Dacia Preistorică'', 1913, I.4] Cult of Achilles: literary references to the island ''Leucos'' in Antiquity [[Nicolae Densuşianu]] * [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/result.htm?alt=Achilles&pnumber=20 Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles] {{Characters in the Iliad}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Achilles}} [[Category:Characters in the Iliad]] [[Category:Kings of the Myrmidons]] [[Category:Greek mythological hero cult]] [[Category:People of the Trojan War]] [[Category:Thessalians in the Trojan War]] {{Link FA|fr}} hsqfvzabp1jtvdspbs48v2f45600lk2 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 306 160873796 107069253 2007-09-28T08:12:23Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase #REDIRECT [[Statistics]]{{R from CamelCase}} j87srp61db4304lwr1qy5gfpdatwz30 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 307 602508352 601991713 2014-04-03T01:43:10Z DavidLeighEllis 18632153 Disambiguate link, [[Declaration of Independence]] will be retargeted to [[Declaration of independence]] per [[Talk:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence#Requested_move_3|RM]] {{About|the American president}} {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2011}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}} {{Infobox officeholder |name=Abraham Lincoln |image=Abraham Lincoln November 1863.jpg |imagesize=225px |alt=Iconic black and white photograph of Lincoln showing his head and shoulders. |caption=An 1863 [[daguerreotype]] of Lincoln, at the age of 54. |order=[[List of Presidents of the United States|16th]] |office=President of the United States |vicepresident=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] <small>(1861–1865)</small> <br />[[Andrew Johnson]] <small>(1865)</small> |term_start=March 4, 1861 |term_end=April 15, 1865 |predecessor=[[James Buchanan]] |successor=[[Andrew Johnson]] |state2=[[Illinois]] |district2=[[Illinois' 7th congressional district|7th]] |term_start2=March 4, 1847 |term_end2=March 4, 1849 |predecessor2=[[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]] |successor2=[[Thomas L. Harris|Thomas Harris]] |state_house3=Illinois |office3 = [[Illinois House of Representatives|Member of the Illinois House of Representatives]] |term_start3=December 1, 1834 |term_end3=1842 |birth_date={{birth date|1809|2|12}} |birth_place=[[Hodgenville, Kentucky]], U.S. |death_date={{death date and age|1865|4|15|1809|2|12}} |death_place=[[Petersen House (Washington, D.C.)|Petersen House]],<br />[[Washington D.C.]], U.S. |restingplace= {{nowrap|[[Lincoln Tomb|Lincoln's Tomb]], [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]]}}<br />[[Springfield, Illinois]], U.S. |nationality= American |party=[[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] <small>(1834–1854)</small><ref><{{cite book|title=Abraham Lincoln: This Nation Shall Have a New Birth of Freedom|page=29|first=Karen|last=Judson|year=2008|publisher=Enslow Publishers|isbn=978-0-7660-3170-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8HyyS74zOBYC&pg=PA29|quote=Before he became a candidate for office, the twenty-five-year-old Lincoln had not declared himself a member of either party,&nbsp;... In the 1834 election, Lincoln ran as a Whig candidate.}}</ref><br />[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] <small>(1854–1865)</small><br />[[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] <small>(1864–1865)</small> |spouse=[[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]] |children=[[Robert Todd Lincoln]]<br />[[Edward Baker Lincoln]]<br />[[Willie Lincoln]]<br />[[Tad Lincoln]] |religion=[[Abraham Lincoln and religion|See: Abraham Lincoln and religion]] |profession=Lawyer<br />Politician |signature=Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg |signature_alt=Cursive signature in ink |branch=Illinois Militia |serviceyears= 3 months (April 21, 1832 - July 10, 1832) |rank= {{Plainlist}} *[[Private (United States)|Private]] (May 28, 1832 - July 10, 1832) *[[Captain (United States)|Captain]] (April 21, 1832 - May 27, 1832) Discharged from his command and re-enlisted as a Private. |battles=[[Black Hawk War]] }} '''Abraham Lincoln''' {{IPAc-en|audio=Lincoln.ogg|ˈ|eɪ|b|r|ə|h|æ|m|_|ˈ|l|I|ŋ|k|ən}} (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the [[List of Presidents of the United States|16th President of the United States]], serving from March 1861 until [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination in April 1865]]. Lincoln led the United States through its [[American Civil War|Civil War]]—its bloodiest war and its greatest moral, constitutional and political crisis.<ref>{{cite book|author=William A. Pencak|title=Encyclopedia of the Veteran in America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yyvmcMsNnB4C&pg=PA222|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=222|isbn=978-0-313-08759-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Finkelman|author2=Stephen E. Gottlieb|title=Toward a Usable Past: Liberty Under State Constitutions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xJuXT1sVhFcC&pg=PA388|year=2009|publisher=U of Georgia Press|page=388|isbn=978-0-8203-3496-7}}</ref> In so doing he preserved the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government and modernized the economy. Reared in a poor family on the [[American frontier|western frontier]], Lincoln was a self-educated lawyer in [[Illinois]], a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party leader]], [[Illinois House of Representatives|state legislator]] during the 1830s, and a one-term member of the Congress during the 1840s. He promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, canals, railroads and tariffs to encourage the building of factories; he opposed the war with Mexico in 1846. After a [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|series of highly publicized debates]] in 1858 during which he opposed the expansion of slavery, Lincoln lost the U.S. Senate race to his archrival, Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]]. Lincoln, a moderate from a [[swing state]], secured the [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] presidential nomination in 1860. With almost no support in the [[Southern United States|South]], Lincoln swept the [[Northern United States|North]] and was [[United States presidential election, 1860|elected president in 1860]]. His election prompted seven southern slave states to form the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. No compromise or reconciliation was found regarding slavery. When the North enthusiastically rallied behind the national flag after the Confederate attack on [[Fort Sumter]] on April 12, 1861, Lincoln concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war effort. His goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, arresting and temporarily detaining thousands of suspected secessionists in the border states without trial. Lincoln averted British intervention by defusing the Trent affair in late 1861. His numerous complex moves toward ending slavery centered on the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] in 1863, using the Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraging the border states to outlaw slavery, and helping push through Congress the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which permanently outlawed slavery. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including commanding general [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. He made the major decisions on Union war strategy, Lincoln's Navy set up a naval blockade that shut down the South's normal trade, helped take control of Kentucky and Tennessee, and gained control of the Southern river system using gunboats. He tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]]. Each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another until finally Grant succeeded in 1865. An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state, Lincoln reached out to "[[War Democrats]]" (who supported the North against the South), and managed his own re-election in the [[United States presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential election]]. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican party, confronted Radical Republicans who demanded harsher treatment of the South, War Democrats who called for more compromise, Copperheads who despised him, and irreconcilable secessionists who plotted his death. Politically, Lincoln fought back with patronage, by pitting his opponents against each other, and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory.<ref>Randall (1947), pp. 65–87.</ref> His [[Gettysburg Address]] of 1863 became an iconic statement of America's dedication to the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln held a moderate view of [[Reconstruction Era of the United States|Reconstruction]], seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. Six days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general [[Robert E. Lee]], Lincoln was assassinated by [[John Wilkes Booth]], a noted actor and Confederate sympathizer. Lincoln has been consistently [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States#Scholar survey results|ranked]] both by scholars<ref name="Ranking Our Presidents">[http://history-world.org/pres.pdf "Ranking Our Presidents"]. James Lindgren. November 16, 2000. International World History Project.</ref> and the public<ref name=gallup>[http://www.gallup.com/poll/146183/Americans-Say-Reagan-Greatest-President.aspx "Americans Say Reagan Is the Greatest President"]. Gallup Inc. February 28, 2011.</ref> as one of the greatest U.S. presidents. ==Family and childhood== ===Early life=== {{Main|Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln}} Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, the second child of [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Lincoln]] (née Hanks), in a one-room log cabin on the [[Sinking Spring Farm]] in [[Hardin County, Kentucky|Hardin County]], Kentucky<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 20–22.</ref> (now [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue County]]). He is descended from [[Samuel Lincoln]], who arrived in [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]], Massachusetts, from [[Norfolk]], England, in the 17th century.<ref>[[#Donald|Donald (1996)]], p. 20.</ref> Lincoln's paternal grandfather and namesake, [[Abraham Lincoln (captain)|Abraham]], had moved his family from Virginia to Kentucky, where he was ambushed and killed in an [[Northwest Indian War|Indian raid]] in 1786, as his children, including Lincoln's father Thomas, looked on.<ref name="white-12_13">White, pp. 12–13.</ref> Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 21.</ref> Lincoln's mother, Nancy, was the daughter of Lucy Hanks, and was born in what is now [[Mineral County, West Virginia|Mineral County]], West Virginia, then part of Virginia. Lucy moved with Nancy to Kentucky. Nancy Hanks married Thomas, who became a respected citizen. He bought or leased several farms, including [[Knob Creek Farm]]. The family attended a [[Separate Baptists]] church, which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 22–24.</ref> Thomas enjoyed considerable status in Kentucky—where he sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. By the time his son Abraham was born, Thomas owned two {{convert|600|acre|ha|adj=on}} farms, several town lots, livestock, and horses. He was among the richest men in the county. However, in 1816, Thomas lost all of his land in court cases because of faulty property titles.<ref name="sandberg-20"/> [[File:Young Lincoln By Charles Keck.JPG|thumb|left|upright|The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago|alt=A statue of young Lincoln sitting on a stump, holding a book open on his lap]] The family [[Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial|moved north across the Ohio River]] to free (i.e., non-slave) territory and made a new start in what was then [[Perry County, Indiana#History|Perry County]] but is now [[Spencer County, Indiana]]. Lincoln later noted that this move was "partly on account of slavery" but mainly due to land title difficulties.<ref name="sandberg-20">Sandburg (1926), p. 20.</ref> In Indiana, when Lincoln was nine, his mother Nancy died of [[milk sickness]] in 1818. After the death of Lincoln's mother, his older sister, [[Sarah Lincoln Grigsby|Sarah]], took charge of caring for him until their father remarried in 1819; Sarah later died in her 20s while giving birth to a stillborn son.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 20, 30-33.</ref> Thomas Lincoln's new wife was the widow [[Sarah Bush Lincoln|Sarah Bush Johnston]], the mother of three children. Lincoln became very close to his stepmother, and referred to her as "Mother".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 26–27.</ref> As a pre-teen, he did not like the hard labor associated with frontier life. Some in his family, and in the neighborhood, for a time considered him to be lazy.<ref>White, pp. 25, 31, 47.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), p. 33.</ref> As he grew into his teens, he willingly took responsibility for all chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household and became an adept axeman in his work building rail fences. He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match to which he was challenged by the renowned leader of a group of ruffians, "the Clary's Grove boys".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 41.</ref> Lincoln also agreed with the customary obligation of a son to give his father all earnings from work done outside the home until age 21.<ref name="donald-1996-p30-33">Donald (1996), pp. 30–33.</ref> In later years, Lincoln occasionally loaned his father money.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 28, 152.</ref> Lincoln became increasingly distant from his father, in part because of his father's lack of education. While young Lincoln's formal education consisted approximately of a year's worth of classes from several itinerant teachers, he was mostly self-educated and was an avid reader and often sought access to any new books in the village. He read and reread the ''[[King James Bible]],'' [[Aesop]]'s ''Fables,'' [[John Bunyan|Bunyan]]'s ''Pilgrim's Progress,'' [[Daniel Defoe|Defoe]]'s ''Robinson Crusoe,'' and [[Benjamin Franklin|Franklin]]'s ''Autobiography.''<ref>Donald (1996), pp.&nbsp;29–31, 38–43</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Merrill D. Peterson|title=Lincoln in American Memory|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EADk9ZIMJXEC&pg=PA110|year=1995|publisher=Oxford U.P.|page=110|isbn=978-0-19-988002-7}}</ref> In 1830, fearing a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River, the Lincoln family moved west, where they settled on public land 10 miles west of [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]], in [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon County]], Illinois, another free, non-slave state.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 36.</ref> In 1831, Thomas relocated the family to a [[Lincoln Log Cabin State Historic Site|new homestead]] in [[Coles County, Illinois|Coles County]], Illinois. It was then that, as an ambitious 22-year-old who was now old enough to make his own decisions, Lincoln struck out on his own. Canoeing down the [[Sangamon River]], Lincoln ended up in the village of [[New Salem, Menard County, Illinois|New Salem]] in [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]].<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 23–53</ref> In the spring of 1831, hired by a New Salem businessman [[Denton Offutt]] and accompanied by friends, he took goods by [[flatboat]] from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers. After arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—he walked back home.<ref>Sandburg (1926), pp. 22–23.</ref> ===Marriage and children=== {{Further2|[[Lincoln family tree]]|[[Medical and mental health of Abraham Lincoln]]|[[Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln]]}} {{multiple image | direction=horizontal | width= | footer= | width1=166 | image1=A&TLincoln.jpg | alt1=A seated Lincoln holding a book as his young son looks at it | caption1=1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son, Tad | width2=150 | image2=Mary Todd Lincoln 1846-1847 restored cropped.png | alt2=Black and white photo of Mary Todd Lincoln's shoulders and head | caption2=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]], wife of Abraham Lincoln, age 28 }} Lincoln's first romantic interest was [[Ann Rutledge]], whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died at the age of 22 on August 25, 1835, most likely of [[typhoid fever]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 55–58.</ref> In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary did return in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts about their relationship. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied and the courtship ended.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 67–69; Thomas (2008), pp. 56–57, 69–70.</ref> In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]], who was from a wealthy slave-holding family in [[Lexington, Kentucky|Lexington]], Kentucky.<ref>Lamb, p. 43.</ref> They met in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], Illinois, in December 1839<ref name="Sandburg4648">Sandburg (1926), pp. 46–48.</ref> and were engaged the following December.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 86.</ref> A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln's initiative.<ref name="Sandburg4648"/><ref>Donald (1996), p. 87.</ref> They later met again at a party and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister.<ref>Sandburg (1926), pp. 50–51.</ref> While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again, Lincoln, when asked where he was going, replied, "To hell, I suppose."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 93.</ref> In 1844, the couple bought [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|a house]] in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary Todd Lincoln kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl.<ref>Baker, p. 142.</ref> [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] was born in 1843 and [[Edward Baker Lincoln]] (Eddie) in 1846. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children",<ref>White, p. 126.</ref> and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their children.<ref>Baker, p. 120.</ref> Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. [[William Wallace Lincoln|"Willie" Lincoln]] was born on December 21, 1850, and died on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns' fourth son, [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas "Tad" Lincoln]], was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871.<ref>White, pp. 179–181, 476.</ref> Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children. His last descendant, grandson [[Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith]], died in 1985.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jason Emerson|title=Giant in the Shadows: The Life of Robert T. Lincoln|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tPqgC3RS-7sC&pg=PA420|year=2012|publisher=SIU Press|page=420|isbn=978-0-8093-3055-3}}</ref> The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875.<ref>Steers, p. 341.</ref> Abraham Lincoln suffered from "[[Melancholia|melancholy]]," a condition which now is referred to as [[Major depressive disorder|clinical depression]].<ref name="Atlanticoct2005">{{cite web|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200510/lincolns-clinical-depression|title=Lincoln's Great Depression|first=Joshua Wolf|last=Shenk|date=October 2005|work=The Atlantic|publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a4fProj |archivedate=2011-10-20|deadurl=}}</ref> Lincoln's father-in-law was based in Lexington, Kentucky; he and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington.<ref>Foner (1995), pp. 440–447.</ref> He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children. ==Early career and militia service== {{Further|Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War}} In 1832, at age 23, Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit in [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem]], Illinois. Although the economy was booming in the region, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he began his political career with his first campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]]. He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural [[raconteur]] in New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money, which may be why he lost. He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.<ref>Winkle ch 7–8.{{page needed|date=September 2011}}</ref> Before the election, Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the [[Black Hawk War]].<ref>Winkle, pp. 86–95.</ref> Following his return, Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly. At {{convert|6|ft|4|in|cm|0}},<ref>Sandburg (2002), p. 14</ref> he was tall and "strong enough to intimidate any rival". At his first speech, when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked, Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers" and threw him.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 46.</ref> Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.<ref>Winkle, pp. 114–116.</ref> Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading [[William Blackstone|Blackstone]]'s ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'' and other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: "I studied with nobody".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 53–55.</ref> His second campaign in 1834 was successful. He won election to the state legislature; though he ran as a [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]], many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent.<ref>White, p. 59.</ref> [[Admission to the bar in the United States|Admitted to the bar]] in 1836,<ref>Donald (1996), p. 64.</ref> he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law under [[John T. Stuart]], Mary Todd's cousin.<ref>White, pp. 71, 79, 108.</ref> Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with [[Stephen T. Logan]] from 1841 until 1844, when he began [[Lincoln-Herndon Law Offices State Historic Site|his practice]] with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], whom Lincoln thought "a studious young man".<ref>Donald (1948), p. 17.</ref> He served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]] as a Whig representative from Sangamon County.<ref>Simon, p. 283.</ref> In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage to white males, whether landowners or not.<ref>Simon, p. 130.</ref> He was known for his "free soil" stance of opposing both slavery and [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]]. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 134.</ref> He closely followed [[Henry Clay]] in supporting the [[American Colonization Society]] program of making the abolition of slavery practical by helping the freed slaves to settle in [[Liberia]] in Africa.<ref>Foner (2010), pp. 17–19, 67.</ref> {{-}} ==Congressman Lincoln== [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Nicholas Shepherd, 1846-crop.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Middle aged clean shaven Lincoln from the hips up.|Lincoln in his late 30s as a member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]]. Photo taken by one of Lincoln's law students around 1846.]] From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] and professed to friends in 1861 to be, "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 222.</ref> The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, protective tariffs to fund [[internal improvements]] including railroads, and espoused urbanization as well.<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 137–153.</ref> In 1846, Lincoln was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line.<ref>Oates, p. 79.</ref> Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman [[Joshua R. Giddings]], wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the [[Washington, District of Columbia|District of Columbia]] with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters.<ref>Harris, p. 54; Foner (2010), p. 57.</ref> On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the [[Mexican–American War]], which he attributed to [[James K. Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood".<ref>Heidler (2006), pp. 181–183.</ref> Lincoln also supported the [[Wilmot Proviso]], which, if it had been adopted, would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.<ref>Holzer, p. 63.</ref> Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his [[Spot Resolutions]]. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S.; Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded ''our territory'' and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our ''own soil''{{-"}}.<ref>Oates, pp. 79–80.</ref><ref name="Basler1pp199—202">Basler (1946), pp. 199–202.</ref> Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.<ref name="Basler1pp199—202"/> Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, the national papers ignored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln".<ref name="McGovern, p. 33">McGovern, p. 33.</ref><ref>Basler (1946), p. 202.</ref><ref name="MuellerSchamel">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lincoln-resolutions/|title=Lincoln's Spot Resolutions|publisher=National Archives|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a5gtE9P|archivedate=2011-10-20|deadurl=}}</ref> Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 128.</ref> Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General [[Zachary Taylor]] for the Whig nomination in the [[United States presidential election, 1848|1848 presidential election]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 124–126.</ref> Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the [[General Land Office]], but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival, [[Justin Butterfield]], considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer, but in Lincoln's view, an "old fossil".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 140.</ref> The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the [[Oregon Territory]]. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.<ref>Harris, pp. 55–57.</ref> ==Prairie lawyer== Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 96.</ref> Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 105–106, 158.</ref> Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 142–143.</ref> In fact, he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a [[Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company|landmark case]] involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge.<ref>[http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/bridge.html Bridging the Mississippi]. Archives.gov (2011-10-19). Retrieved on 2013-08-17.</ref><ref>Donald (1996), pp. 156–157.</ref> In 1849, he received [[Abraham Lincoln's patent|a patent for a flotation device]] for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.<ref>White, p. 163.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=19|title=Abraham Lincoln's Patent Model: Improvement for Buoying Vessels Over Shoals|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a7AMeAa|archivedate=2011-10-20|deadurl=}}</ref> In 1851, he represented the [[Alton Railroad|Alton & Sangamon Railroad]] in a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route.<ref name="Donald p. 155">Donald (1996), p. 155.</ref><ref>Dirck (2007), p. 92.</ref> Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter in existence at the time of Barret's pledge; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret's payment. The decision by the [[Supreme Court of Illinois|Illinois Supreme Court]] has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation.<ref name="Donald p. 155"/> Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor.<ref>Handy, p. 440.</ref> From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the [[Illinois Central Railroad]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 155–156, 196–197.</ref> Lincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.<ref name="Donald150151">Donald (1996), pp. 150–151.</ref> The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by [[judicial notice]] in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a ''[[Farmers' Almanac]]'' showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Based on this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.<ref name="Donald150151"/> Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of stabbing another to death, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison.<ref name="Donald150151"/><ref>Harrison (1935), p. 270.</ref> ==Republican politics 1854–60== ===Slavery and a "House Divided"=== {{further|Slave and free states|Abraham Lincoln and slavery}} By the 1850s, slavery was still legal in the southern United States, but had been generally outlawed in the northern states, such as Illinois.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Peculiar Instution|url=http://publications.newberry.org/lincoln/exhibits/show/alwayshatedslavery/peculiarinstitution|publisher=Newberry Library and Chicago History Museum|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62dB0ccYV|archivedate=2011-10-22|accessdate=2012-01-05}}</ref> Lincoln disapproved of slavery, and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory in the west.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lincoln Speaks Out|url=http://publications.newberry.org/lincoln/exhibits/show/alwayshatedslavery/speaksout|publisher=Newberry Library and Chicago History Museum|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62dBlWFGi|archivedate=2011-10-22|accessdate=2012-01-05}}</ref> He returned to politics to oppose the pro-slavery [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] (1854); this law repealed the slavery-restricting [[Missouri Compromise]] (1820). Senior Senator [[Stephen A. Douglas]] of Illinois had incorporated [[Popular sovereignty in the United States#Emergence of the term "popular sovereignty" and its pejorative connotation|popular sovereignty]] into the Act. Douglas' provision, which Lincoln opposed, specified settlers had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. territory, rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress.<ref>McGovern, pp. 36–37.</ref> [[Eric Foner]] (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the [[Republicanism in the United States|republicanism principles]] of the [[Founding Fathers]], especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]].<ref>Foner (2010), pp. 84–88.</ref> [[Image:DredScott.jpg|alt=Painting|thumb|upright|Portrait of [[Dred Scott]]. Lincoln denounced the Supreme Court decision in ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' as part of a conspiracy to extend slavery.]] On October 16, 1854, in his "[[Abraham Lincoln Peoria speech|Peoria Speech]]", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency.<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 148–152.</ref> Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a very powerful voice,<ref>White, p. 199.</ref> he said the Kansas Act had a "''declared'' indifference, but as I must think, a covert ''real'' zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world&nbsp;..."<ref>Basler (1953), p. 255.</ref> In late 1854, Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate seat from Illinois. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature.<ref>Oates, p. 119.</ref> After leading in the first six rounds of voting in the Illinois assembly, his support began to dwindle, and Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for [[Lyman Trumbull]], who defeated opponent [[Joel Aldrich Matteson]].<ref>White, pp. 205–208.</ref> The Whigs had been irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Lincoln wrote, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist, even though I do no more than oppose the ''extension'' of slavery."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=wecyqmIs6voC&pg=PA16&dq=I+think+I+am+a+Whig,+but+others+say+there+are+no+Whigs,+and+that+I+am+an+abolitionist,+even+though+I+do+no+more+than+oppose+the+extension+of+slavery.#v=onepage&q=I%20think%20I%20am%20a%20Whig%2C%20but%20others%20say%20there%20are%20no%20Whigs%2C%20and%20that%20I%20am%20an%20abolitionist%2C%20even%20though%20I%20do%20no%20more%20than%20oppose%20the%20extension%20of%20slavery.&f=false |title=Lincoln Looks West: From the Mississippi to the Pacific|first1= Richard W.|last1= Etulain|author2=Robert W. Johannsen|page=16|publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= 2010-03-05|accessdate=2012-07-05|isbn=978-0-8093-2961-8}}</ref> Drawing on remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchanted [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], [[Liberty Party (United States, 1840)|Liberty]], and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] members, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the new [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].<ref>McGovern, pp. 38–39.</ref> At the [[1856 Republican National Convention]], Lincoln placed second in the contest to become the party's candidate for vice president.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 193.</ref> In 1857–1858, Douglas broke with President [[James Buchanan]], leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the [[Lecompton Constitution]], which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]].<ref>Oates, pp. 138–139.</ref> In March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its decision in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]''; Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]] opined that blacks were not citizens, and derived no rights from the Constitution. Lincoln denounced the decision, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the [[Slave Power]].<ref>Zarefsky, pp. 69–110.</ref> Lincoln argued, "The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity', but they 'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'."<ref>Jaffa, pp. 299–300.</ref> After the state Republican party convention nominated him for the U.S. Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered his [[Lincoln's House Divided Speech|House Divided Speech]], drawing on {{bible|Mark 3:25}}: "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other."<ref>White, p. 251.</ref> The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the North.<ref>Harris, p. 98.</ref> The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 209.</ref> ===Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech=== [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Byers, 1858 - crop.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Lincoln in 1858, the year of his debates with Stephen Douglas.]] The Senate campaign featured the seven [[Lincoln–Douglas debates]] of 1858, the most famous political debates in American history.<ref>McPherson (1993), p. 182.</ref> The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that "[[The Slave Power]]" was threatening the values of [[Republicanism in the United States|republicanism]], and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that [[all men are created equal]], while Douglas emphasized his [[Freeport Doctrine]], that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 214–224.</ref> The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln stated Douglas' [[popular sovereignty]] theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the ''Dred Scott'' decision.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 223.</ref> Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas to the Senate. Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln, his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation.<ref>Carwardine (2003), pp. 89–90.</ref> In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the ''Illinois Staats-Anzeiger,'' a German-language newspaper which was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German-language paper could mobilize.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 242, 412.</ref> On February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a [[Cooper Union speech|speech at Cooper Union]] to a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong".<ref>Jaffa, p. 473.</ref> Despite his inelegant appearance—many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly<ref>Holzer, pp. 108–111.</ref>—Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination. Journalist [[Noah Brooks]] reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience."<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 97.</ref><ref>Holzer, p. 157.</ref> Historian [[David Herbert Donald|Donald]] described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's ([[William H. Seward]]) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's ([[Salmon P. Chase]]) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 240.</ref> In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions, Lincoln said, "The taste ''is'' in my mouth a little."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 241.</ref> ===1860 Presidential nomination and campaign=== {{Main|Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln|United States presidential election, 1860}} [[File:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Lincoln being carried by two men on a long board.|"The Rail Candidate"—Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is depicted as held up by the slavery issue—a slave on the left and party organization on the right.]] On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]].<ref>Donald (1996), p. 244.</ref> Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]], [[Norman B. Judd|Norman Judd]], [[Leonard Swett]], and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency.<ref>Oates, pp. 175–176.</ref> Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father (clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 245.</ref> On May 18, at the [[1860 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] in Chicago, Lincoln's friends promised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. A former Democrat, [[Hannibal Hamlin]] of Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff.<ref>Luthin, pp. 609–629.</ref> On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top. Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs.<ref>Hofstadter, pp. 50–55.</ref> Lincoln's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others, while following Lincoln's strong dictate to "Make no contracts that bind me".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 247–250.</ref> Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the ''Dred Scott'' decision and the presidency of James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession.<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 10, 13, 18.</ref> Meanwhile, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the [[1860 Democratic National Convention|Democratic convention]], disagreeing with Douglas' position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selected [[John C. Breckinridge]] as their candidate.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 253.</ref> As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of "free labor", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 254–256.</ref> The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a ''Chicago Tribune'' writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000 to 200,000 copies.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 254.</ref> ==Presidency== {{main|Presidency of Abraham Lincoln}} ===1860 election and secession=== {{Main|United States presidential election, 1860|Baltimore Plot}} {{multiple image | align=right | direction=horizontal | width= | footer= | width1=272 | image1=ElectoralCollege1860.svg | alt1=Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning the North-east and West, Breckinridge winning the South, Douglas winning Missouri, and Bell winning Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky. | caption1=In 1860, northern and western [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral]] votes (shown in red) put Lincoln into the White House. | width2=148 | image2=Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg | alt2=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars. | caption2=1861 inaugural at [[U.S. Capitol Building|Capitol]]. The rotunda still under construction }} On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, and [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] of the new [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]]. He was the first president from the Republican Party. His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states.<ref>Mansch, p. 61.</ref> Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957 votes, Breckinridge 849,781 votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. Turnout was 82.2&nbsp;percent, with Lincoln winning the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. Douglas won Missouri, and split New Jersey with Lincoln.<ref>Harris, p. 243.</ref> Bell won Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South.<ref>White, p. 350.</ref> Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote, his victory in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]] was decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123. There were [[Electoral fusion|fusion tickets]] in which all of Lincoln's opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'' vol 4. p. 312.</ref> [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-55, 1861-crop.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The first photographic image of the new president.]] As Lincoln's election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March.<ref>Edgar, p. 350.</ref> On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed.<ref name="Donald, p. 267"/><ref>Potter, p. 498.</ref> Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the [[Confederate States of America]].<ref name="Donald, p. 267">Donald (1996), p. 267.</ref> The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal.<ref>White, p. 362.</ref> President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.<ref>Potter, pp. 520, 569–570.</ref> The Confederacy selected [[Jefferson Davis]] as its provisional President on February 9, 1861.<ref>White, p. 369.</ref> There were attempts at compromise. The [[Crittenden Compromise]] would have extended the [[Missouri Compromise]] line of 1820, dividing the territories into slave and free, contrary to the Republican Party's free-soil platform.<ref name=White360-361>White, pp. 360–361.</ref> Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, "I will suffer death before I consent&nbsp;... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 268.</ref> Lincoln, however, did tacitly support the proposed [[Corwin Amendment]] to the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent.<ref>Vorenberg, p. 22.</ref><ref name=Vile_pp280>Vile (2003), ''Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002'' pp.&nbsp;280–281</ref> A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.<ref name=Lupton_2006>Lupton (2006), [http://www.lib.niu.edu/2006/ih060934.html Abraham Lincoln and the Corwin Amendment], Retrieved 2013-01-13</ref> Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution.<ref name=Vile_p281>Vile (2003), ''Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002'' p.&nbsp;281</ref> En route to his inauguration by train, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 273–277.</ref> The president-elect then [[Baltimore Plot|evaded possible assassins]] in Baltimore, who were uncovered by Lincoln's head of security, [[Allan Pinkerton]]. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 277–279.</ref> Lincoln directed his [[Lincoln's first inaugural address|inaugural address]] to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to abolish slavery in the Southern states: {{quote|Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."|[[Lincoln's first inaugural address|First inaugural address]], 4 March 1861<ref>Sandburg (2002), p. 212.</ref>}} The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies&nbsp;... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 283–284.</ref> The failure of the [[Peace Conference of 1861]] signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 268, 279.</ref> Lincoln said as the war was ending: :Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came.<ref>March 4, 1865, [[Lincoln's second inaugural address]].</ref> ===Beginning of the war=== {{Main|American Civil War|Battle of Fort Sumter}} [[File:Major Robert Anderson.jpg|alt=portrait|thumb|upright|[[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Anderson]], Ft. Sumter commander]] The commander of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, [[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Major Robert Anderson]], sent a request for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]], forcing them to surrender, and began the war. Historian [[Allan Nevins]] argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.<ref>Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union'' (1959) vol 5 p 29</ref> [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war.<ref>Sherman, pp. 185–186.</ref> Donald concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 293.</ref> On April 15, Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. This call forced the states to choose sides. Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] so close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky tried to be neutral.<ref name="Oates, p. 226">Oates, p. 226.</ref> Troops headed south towards Washington to protect the capital in response to Lincoln's call. On April 19, secessionist mobs in Baltimore that controlled the rail links [[Baltimore riot of 1861|attacked Union troops]] traveling to the capital. [[George William Brown]], the Mayor of Baltimore, and other suspected Maryland politicians were arrested and imprisoned, without a warrant, as Lincoln suspended the writ of ''[[Habeas corpus in the United States#Suspension during the Civil War|habeas corpus]]''.<ref>Heidler (2000), p. 174.</ref> [[John Merryman]], a leader in the secessionist group in Maryland, petitioned Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]] to issue a writ of ''habeas corpus,'' saying holding Merryman without a hearing was unlawful. Taney issued the writ, thereby ordering Merryman's release, but Lincoln ignored it. Then and throughout the war, Lincoln came under heavy attack from antiwar Democrats, called [[Copperhead (politics)|Copperheads]].<ref>Scott, pp. 326–341.</ref> ===Assuming command for the Union in the war=== After the fall of [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]], Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the rebellion. Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis, and he responded as [[commander-in-chief]], using unprecedented powers. He expanded his war powers, and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, and after suspending ''habeas corpus'', arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In addition, Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 303–304; Carwardine (2003), pp. 163–164.</ref> [[File:RunningtheMachine-LincAdmin.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A group of men sitting at a table as another man creates money on a wooden machine.|"Running the 'Machine'&nbsp;": An 1864 political cartoon takes a swing at Lincoln's administration—featuring [[William Fessenden]], [[Edwin Stanton]], [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], [[Gideon Welles]], Lincoln and others.]] The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln, and dominated his time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort, and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 315, 331–333, 338–339, 417.</ref> On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Confiscation Act of 1861|Confiscation Act]] that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. In practice the law had little effect, but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy<ref>Donald (1996), p. 314; Carwardine (2003), p. 178.</ref> In late August 1861, General [[John C. Frémont]], the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued, without consulting his superiors in Washington, a proclamation of [[martial law]] in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be [[court-martial]]ed and shot, and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of the [[Department of the West]] compounded with allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont's proclamation. Lincoln believed that Fremont's emancipation was political; neither militarily necessary nor legal.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 314–317.</ref> After Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000 troops.<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 181.</ref> The [[Trent Affair]] of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British merchant ship, the ''Trent'', on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln resolved the issue by releasing the two men and war was successfully averted with Britain.<ref name="CFAdams">Adams, pp. 540–562.</ref> Lincoln's foreign policy approach had been initially hands off, due to his inexperience; he left most diplomacy appointments and other foreign policy matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward. Seward's initial reaction to the ''Trent'' affair, however, was too bellicose, so Lincoln also turned to Senator [[Charles Sumner]], the chairman of the [[Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] and an expert in British diplomacy.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 322.</ref> To learn technical military terms, Lincoln borrowed and studied [[Henry Halleck]]'s book, ''Elements of Military Art and Science'' from the [[Library of Congress]].<ref>Prokopowicz, p. 127.</ref> Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the [[United States War Department|War Department]] in Washington, D.C. He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their past success (as well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced [[Simon Cameron]] with [[Edwin Stanton]] as [[United States Secretary of War|War Secretary]]. Stanton was one of many conservative Democrats (he supported Breckenridge in the 1860 election) who became anti-slavery Republicans under Lincoln's leadership.<ref>Benjamin P. Thomas and Harold M. Hyman, ''Stanton, the Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War'' (Knopf, 1962){{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> In terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 295–296.</ref> Twice a week, Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon, and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 391–392.</ref> Lincoln learned from his chief of staff General [[Henry Wager Halleck|Henry Halleck]], a student of the European strategist [[Antoine-Henri Jomini|Jomini]], of the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River;<ref>Ambrose, pp. 7, 66, 159.</ref> he also knew well the importance of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 432–436.</ref> ===General McClellan=== After the Union defeat at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and the retirement of the aged [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General [[George B. McClellan]] general-in-chief of all the Union armies.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 318–319.</ref> McClellan, a young West Point graduate, railroad executive, and Pennsylvania Democrat, took several months to plan and attempt his [[Peninsula Campaign]], longer than Lincoln wanted. The campaign's objective was to capture Richmond by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital. McClellan's repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops in defense of the capital; McClellan, who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops, blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 349–352.</ref> [[File:Lincoln and McClellan 1862-10-03.jpg|alt=Photograph of Lincoln and McClellan sitting at a table in a field tent|thumb|Lincoln and McClellan after the Battle of Antietam]] Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief and appointed [[Henry Wager Halleck]] in March 1862, after McClellan's "Harrison's Landing Letter", in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 360–361.</ref> McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]], a Republican, as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack. However, lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan, now commanding the Army of the Potomac, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time.<ref>Nevins (1960), pp. 2:159–162.</ref> The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the [[CSS Virginia|CSS ''Virginia'']], formerly the USS ''Merrimack'', damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk, Virginia, before being engaged and damaged by the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']]. Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 339–340.</ref> Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln was desperate, and restored him to command of all forces around Washington, to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward.<ref>Goodwin, pp. 478–479.</ref> Two days after McClellan's return to command, General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s forces crossed the [[Potomac River]] into Maryland, leading to the [[Battle of Antietam]] in September 1862.<ref>Goodwin, pp. 478–480.</ref> The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an [[Emancipation Proclamation]] in January. Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier, Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation.<ref>Goodwin, p. 481.</ref> McClellan then resisted the President's demand that he pursue Lee's retreating and exposed army, while his counterpart General [[Don Carlos Buell]] likewise refused orders to move the [[Army of the Ohio]] against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. As a result, Lincoln replaced Buell with [[William Rosecrans]]; and, after the 1862 midterm elections, he replaced McClellan with Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander-in-Chief.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 389–390.</ref> [[Image:Union soldiers entrenched along the west bank of the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg, Virginia (111-B-157).jpg|thumb|left|Union soldiers before Marye's Heights, [[Second Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]], just prior to the battle of May 3, 1863]] Burnside, against the advice of the president, prematurely launched an offensive across the [[Rappahannock River]] and was stunningly defeated by Lee at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]] in December. Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield, but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined. Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 429–431.</ref> Lincoln brought in [[Joseph Hooker]], despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship.<ref>Nevins 6:433-44</ref> The [[United States House of Representatives elections, 1862|mid-term elections]] in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war, as well as rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, the suspension of ''habeas corpus,'' [[Conscription|the military draft law]], and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest, but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest. While Republicans were discouraged, Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states, except New York. The Cincinnati ''Gazette'' contended that the voters were "depressed by the interminable nature of this war, as so far conducted, and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress".<ref>Nevins vol 6 pp. 318–322, quote on p. 322.</ref> In the spring of 1863, Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together; these plans included Hooker's attack on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans' on Chattanooga, Grant's on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 422–423.</ref> Hooker was routed by Lee at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May,<ref>Nevins 6:432–450.</ref> but continued to command his troops for some weeks. He ignored Lincoln's order to divide his troops, and possibly force Lee to do the same in [[Harper's Ferry]], and tendered his resignation, which Lincoln accepted. He was replaced by [[George Meade]], who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the [[Gettysburg Campaign]], which was a victory for the Union, though Lee's army avoided capture. At the same time, after initial setbacks, Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 444–447.</ref> After the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general-in-chief on to his generals, who resented his civilian interference with their own plans. Even so, he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander-in-Chief.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 446.</ref> ===Emancipation Proclamation=== {{Main|Abraham Lincoln and slavery|Emancipation Proclamation}} [[File:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|left|Lincoln presents the first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet. Painted by [[Francis Bicknell Carpenter]] in 1864|alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men.]] Lincoln understood that the Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual states. He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory. At the beginning of the war, he also sought to persuade the states to accept [[compensated emancipation]] in return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it, as envisioned by the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]], under the constitution.<ref name="Mackubin">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/books/owens200403251139.asp|title=The Liberator|first=Thomas Owens|last=Mackubin|date=March 25, 2004|work=National Review|publisher=National Review|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a7fJ9hj|archivedate=2011-10-20}}</ref> President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General [[John C. Frémont]] in August 1861 and by Major General [[David Hunter]] in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union.<ref>Guelzo (1999), pp. 290–291.</ref> On June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory. In July 1862, the Second [[Confiscation Acts|Confiscation Act]] was passed, which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress's power to free the slaves within the states, he approved the bill in deference to the legislature. He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander-in-Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution, and Lincoln was planning to take that action. In that month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In it, he stated that "as a fit and necessary military measure, on January 1, 1863, all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward, and forever, be free".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 364–365.</ref> Privately, Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated. However Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification. Republican editor [[Horace Greeley]] of the highly influential ''New York Tribune'' fell for the ploy,<ref>McPherson (1992), p. 124.</ref> and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22, 1862. The President said the primary goal of his actions as president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his "official duty") was preserving the Union:<ref>Guelzo (2004), pp. 147–153.</ref> {{quote|My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union&nbsp;... [¶] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.<ref>Basler (1953), p. 388</ref>}} The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and put into effect on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 364, 379.</ref> Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off-year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites.<ref>Louis P. Masur, ''Lincoln's Hundred Days: The Emancipation Proclamation and the War for the Union'' (Harvard University Press; 2012)</ref> Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, as Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed. Lincoln's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 407.</ref> For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 408.</ref> A few days after Emancipation was announced, 13 Republican governors met at the [[War Governors' Conference]]; they supported the president's Proclamation, but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army.<ref>Nevins (1960), pp. 2:239–240.</ref> Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to [[Andrew Johnson]], the military governor of Tennessee, encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 430–431.</ref> By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General [[Lorenzo Thomas]] had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 431.</ref> [[Frederick Douglass]] once observed of Lincoln: "In his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color".<ref>Douglass, pp. 259–260.</ref> ===Gettysburg Address=== {{Main|Gettysburg Address}} [[File:Lincolns Gettysburg Address, Gettysburg.JPG|thumb|left|The only confirmed photo of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, some three hours before the speech.]] With the great Union victory at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] in July 1863, and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall, Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort, despite the [[New York City draft riots]]. The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 453–460.</ref> Defying Lincoln's prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here," the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.<ref name="Bulla">Bulla (2010), p. 222.</ref> In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and the future of democracy in the world would be assured, that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in the nation.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 460–466.</ref><ref>Wills, pp. 20, 27, 105, 146.</ref> ===General Grant=== [[File:The Peacemakers 1868.jpg|alt=Painting of four men conferring in a ship's cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers".|thumb|President Lincoln (center right) with, from left, Generals Sherman and Grant and Admiral Porter – [[The Peacemakers|1868 painting]] of events aboard the ''[[River Queen (steamboat)|River Queen]]'' in March 1865]] Meade's failure to capture Lee's army as it retreated from Gettysburg, and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac, persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed. General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]'s victories at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] and in the [[Vicksburg campaign]] impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man. He fights."<ref>Thomas (2008), p. 315.</ref> With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters, and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'' (Vol. IV), pp. 6–17.</ref> Nevertheless, Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864, as McClellan was. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant's political intentions, and being assured that he had none, submitted to the Senate Grant's promotion to commander of the Union Army. He obtained Congress's consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General, which no officer had held since George Washington.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 490–492.</ref> Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864. This is often characterized as a [[attrition warfare|war of attrition]], given high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]]. Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive, the Confederate forces had "almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces".<ref>McPherson (2009), p. 113.</ref> The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North; Grant had lost a third of his army, and Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, to which the general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer."<ref>Donald (1996), p. 501.</ref> The Confederacy lacked reinforcements, so Lee's army shrank with every costly battle. Grant's army moved south, crossed the [[James River]], forcing a siege and trench warfare outside [[Petersburg, Virginia]]. Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] about the hostilities, as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina.<ref name="whitehousehistory">{{cite web|url=http://www.whitehousehistory.org/whha_about/whitehouse_collection/whitehouse_collection-art-06.html|title=The Peacemakers|publisher=The White House Historical Association|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a8J9jOa|archivedate=2011-10-20|deadurl=}}</ref> Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North, and replaced the Union losses.<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 422–424.</ref> Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure—such as plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. Grant's move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South. This strategy allowed Generals Sherman and [[Philip Sheridan]] to destroy plantations and towns in Virginia's [[Shenandoah Valley]]. The damage caused by [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia in 1864 was limited to a {{convert|60|mi|km|adj=on}} swath, but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal, but rather defeat of the Confederate armies. As Neely (2004) concludes, there was no effort to engage in "[[total war]]" against civilians, as in World War II.<ref>Neely (2004), pp. 434–458.</ref> Confederate general [[Jubal Anderson Early]] began a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital. During Early's [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid on Washington, D.C.]] in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; Captain [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"<ref>Thomas (2008), p. 434.</ref> After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington, Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 516–518.</ref> As Grant continued to wear down Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President [[Alexander H. Stephens|Stephens]] led a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and others at [[Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 565.</ref> On April 1, 1865, Grant successfully outflanked Lee's forces in the [[Battle of Five Forks]] and nearly encircled Petersburg, and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond. Days later, when that city fell, Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital; as he walked through the city, white Southerners were stone-faced, but [[freedmen]] greeted him as a hero. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at [[Appomattox Court House National Historical Park|Appomattox]] and the war was effectively over.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 589.</ref> ===1864 re-election=== {{Main|Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln|United States presidential election, 1864}} While the war was still being waged, Lincoln faced reelection in 1864. Lincoln was a master politician, bringing together—and holding together—all the main factions of the Republican Party, and bringing in [[War Democrats]] such as [[Edwin M. Stanton]] and [[Andrew Johnson]] as well. Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers—greatly expanded over peacetime—to hold the factions of his party together, build support for his own policies, and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket.<ref>Fish, pp. 53–69.</ref><ref>Tegeder, pp. 77–90.</ref> At its 1864 convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new [[National Union Party (United States)|Union Party]].<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 494–507.</ref> When Grant's 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted, the lack of military success wore heavily on the President's re-election prospects, and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Sharing this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House:<ref>Grimsley, p. 80.</ref> {{quote|This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.<ref>Basler (1953), p. 514.</ref>}} Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. {{multiple image | align=left | direction=horizontal | width= | footer= | width1=272 | image1=1864 Electoral Map.png | alt1=Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning all the Union states except for Kentucky, New Jersey, and Delaware. The Southern states are not included. | caption1=An [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral]] landslide (in red) for Lincoln in the 1864 election, southern states (brown) and territories (light brown) not in play | width2=180 | image2=Abraham_Lincoln_giving_his_second_Inaugural_Address_(4_March_1865).jpg | alt2=A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars. | caption2=Lincoln's second inaugural address in 1865 at the almost completed Capitol building }} While the Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called the war a "failure", their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and [[David Farragut]]'s capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters;<ref>Donald (1996), p. 531.</ref> the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. By contrast, the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue, and state Republican parties stressed the [[perfidy]] of the Copperheads.<ref>Randall & Current (1955), p. 307.</ref> Lincoln was re-elected in a landslide, carrying all but three states, and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers' vote.<ref>Paludan, pp. 274–293.</ref> On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]]. In it, he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God's will. Historian [[Mark Noll]] concludes it ranks "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world".<ref>Noll, p. 426.</ref> Lincoln said: {{quote|Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the [[wikt:bondman|bond-man's]] 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether". With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.<ref>Abraham Lincoln, ''Abraham Lincoln: Selected Speeches and Writings'' (Library of America edition, 2009) p 450</ref>}} ===Reconstruction=== {{Main|Reconstruction Era}} Reconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states, and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee's surrender, a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, and Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy."<ref>Thomas (2008), pp. 509–512.</ref> In keeping with that sentiment, Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Rep. [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Sen. [[Charles Sumner]] and Sen. [[Benjamin Wade]], political allies of the president on other issues. Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war. His [[Ten percent plan|Amnesty Proclamation]] of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 471–472.</ref> [[File:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|alt=Cartoon of Lincoln and Johnson attempting to stitch up the broken Union|thumb|A political cartoon of Vice President Andrew Johnson (a former tailor) and Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): ''Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever.'' (Lincoln): ''A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.'']] As Southern states were subdued, critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re-formed. Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas, where Lincoln appointed Generals [[Andrew Johnson]] and [[Frederick Steele]] as military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it. Lincoln's Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. On the other hand, the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the [[Wade-Davis Bill]], in 1864. When Lincoln vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 485–486.</ref> Lincoln's appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the choice of the Radicals, [[Salmon P. Chase]], who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies.<ref>Nevins, ''Ordeal of the Union'', Vol IV., p. 206.</ref> After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, which did not apply to every state, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment. Lincoln declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 561.</ref> By December 1863, a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage. This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican/Unionist platform in the election of 1864. After a long debate in the House, a second attempt passed Congress on January 31, 1865, and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 562–563.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/house-passes-the-13th-amendment |title=House passes the 13th Amendment — History.com This Day in History — 1/31/1865 |publisher=History.com |date= |accessdate=2012-11-19}}</ref> Upon ratification, it became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865.<ref>{{cite web|title=Primary Documents in American History: 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution|url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/13thamendment.html|publisher=Library of Congress|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62a9BIwNw|archivedate=2011-10-20}}</ref> As the war drew to a close, Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of [[freedmen]]. He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner's [[Freedmen's Bureau]] bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves. The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction. Shortly before his assassination, Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction. Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short-term military control over southern states, until readmission under the control of southern Unionists.<ref>Carwardine (2003), pp. 242–243.</ref> Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly what Lincoln would have done about Reconstruction if he had lived, but they make projections based on his known policy positions and political acumen. Lincoln biographers [[James G. Randall]] and [[Richard Current]], according to David Lincove, argue that: :It is likely that had he lived, Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson's, that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals, that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred, and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson's mistakes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lincove|first=David A.|title=Reconstruction in the United States: An Annotated Bibliography|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3EQcT7-Dpi0C&pg=PA80|year= 2000|publisher=Greenwood|page=80}}</ref> [[Eric Foner]] argues that: :Unlike Sumner and other Radicals, Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land. He believed, as most Republicans did in April 1865, that the voting requirements should be determined by the states. He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists, reluctant secessionists, and forward-looking former Confederates. But time and again during the war, Lincoln, after initial opposition, and come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans..... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves.... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death." <ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4b8m7cv3wTIC&pg=PA335|year=2010|publisher=W. W. Norton|pages=334–36}}</ref> ===Redefining the republic and republicanism=== [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-116 by Gardner, 1865-crop.png|thumb|upright|left|alt=An older tired looking Lincoln with a beard.|Lincoln in February 1865, about two months before his death.]] The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country. The term "the United States" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural ("these United States"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.<ref name="Presidential Proclamation">{{cite web|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/04/12/presidential-proclamation-civil-war-sesquicentennial|title=Presidential Proclamation-Civil War Sesquicentennial|publisher=The White House|date=April 12, 2011|quote=...&nbsp;a new meaning was conferred on our country's name&nbsp;... |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62aAPoA6B|archivedate=2011-10-20}}</ref> In recent years, historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln's redefinition of [[Republicanism in the United States|republican values]]. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values—what he called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism.<ref>Jaffa, p. 399.</ref> The Declaration's emphasis on freedom and equality for all, in contrast to the Constitution's tolerance of slavery, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself."<ref>Diggins, p. 307.</ref> His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms.<ref>Foner (2010), p. 215.</ref> Nevertheless, in 1861, Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state.<ref>Jaffa, p. 263.</ref> Burton (2008) argues that Lincoln's republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated.<ref>Orville Vernon Burton, ''The Age of Lincoln'' (2008) p 243</ref> In March 1861, in his [[Lincoln's first inaugural address|First Inaugural Address]], Lincoln explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system. He said "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."<ref>Belz (1998), p. 86.</ref> {{Clear}} ===Other enactments=== Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln only vetoed four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction.<ref>Donald (2001), p. 137.</ref> He signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The [[Pacific Railway Acts]] of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' [[First Transcontinental Railroad]], which was completed in 1869.<ref>Paludan, p. 116.</ref> The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.<ref>McPherson (1993), pp. 450–452.</ref> {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | Name = Lincoln | President = Abraham Lincoln | President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] | Vice President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President 2 = [[Andrew Johnson]] | Vice President date 2 = 1865 | State = [[William H. Seward]] | State date = 1861–1865 | Treasury = [[Salmon P. Chase]] | Treasury date = 1861–1864 | Treasury 2 = [[William P. Fessenden]] | Treasury date 2 = 1864–1865 | Treasury 3 = [[Hugh McCulloch]] | Treasury date 3 = 1865 | War = [[Simon Cameron]] | War date = 1861–1862 | War 2 = [[Edwin M. Stanton]] | War date 2 = 1862–1865 | Justice = [[Edward Bates]] | Justice date = 1861–1864 | Justice 2 = [[James Speed]] | Justice date 2 = 1864–1865 | Post = [[Montgomery Blair]] | Post date = 1861–1864 | Post 2 = [[William Dennison, Jr.]] | Post date 2 = 1864–1865 | Navy = [[Gideon Welles]] | Navy date = 1861–1865 | Interior = [[Caleb Blood Smith]] | Interior date = 1861–1862 | Interior 2 = [[John Palmer Usher]] | Interior date 2 = 1863–1865 | source = <ref>{{cite web|author=Summers, Robert|title=Abraham Lincoln|url=http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/alincoln.html|work=Internet Public Library 2 (IPL2)|publisher=U. Michigan and Drexel U.|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62dM1T7zn|archivedate=October 22, 2011|deadurl=}}</ref> }} Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a new Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third [[Morrill Tariff]], the first having become law under James Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed the [[Revenue Act of 1861]], creating the first U.S. income tax.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 424.</ref> This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|800|1861|r=-2}}}} in current dollar terms), which was later changed by the [[Revenue Act of 1862]] to a progressive rate structure.<ref>Paludan, p. 111.</ref> Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]] provided a strong financial network in the country. It also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln's approval, the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]].<ref name="Donald 2001 p. 424">Donald (2001), p. 424.</ref> In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the "[[Dakota War of 1862|Sioux Uprising]]" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 execution warrants for convicted [[Sioux#Santee (Isáŋyathi or Eastern Dakota)|Santee Dakota]] who were accused of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).<ref>Cox, p. 182.</ref> President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy.<ref>Nichols, pp. 210–232.</ref> In the wake of Grant's casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued. In response to rumors of one, however, the editors of the ''[[New York World]]'' and the ''[[The Journal of Commerce|Journal of Commerce]]'' published a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers. The seizure lasted for two days.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 501–502.</ref> Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving holiday]] in the United States.<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471">Donald (1996), p. 471.</ref> Before Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation had been during [[James Madison]]'s presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471"/> In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as [[Yosemite National Park]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schaffer|first=Jeffrey P.|title=Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails|publisher=Wilderness Press|page=48|location=Berkeley|year=1999|isbn=0-89997-244-6}}</ref> ===Judicial appointments=== {{main|List of federal judges appointed by Abraham Lincoln}} ====Supreme Court appointments==== * [[Noah Haynes Swayne]] – 1862 * [[Samuel Freeman Miller]] – 1862 * [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]] – 1862 * [[Stephen Johnson Field]] – 1863 * [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Portland Chase]] – 1864 (Chief Justice) [[File:Mathew Brady, Portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, officer of the United States government (1860–1865, full version).jpg|thumb|right|[[Salmon Portland Chase]] was Lincoln's choice to be [[Chief Justice of the United States]].]] Lincoln's declared philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known."<ref name="Donald 1996, p. 471"/> Lincoln made five appointments to the United States Supreme Court. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]], nominated January 21, 1862 and appointed January 24, 1862, was chosen as an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. [[Samuel Freeman Miller]], nominated and appointed on July 16, 1862, supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|David Davis]], Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860, nominated December 1, 1862 and appointed December 8, 1862, had also served as a judge in Lincoln's Illinois court circuit. [[Stephen Johnson Field]], a previous California Supreme Court justice, was nominated March 6, 1863 and appointed March 10, 1863, and provided geographic balance, as well as political balance to the court as a Democrat. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, [[Salmon P. Chase]], was nominated as Chief Justice, and appointed the same day, on December 6, 1864. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.<ref>Blue, p. 245.</ref> ====Other judicial appointments==== Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges, including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], and 27 judges to the [[United States district courts]]. Lincoln appointed no judges to the [[United States circuit court]]s during his time in office. ===States admitted to the Union=== [[West Virginia]], admitted to the Union June 20, 1863, contained the former north-westernmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonwealth declared its secession from the Union. As a condition for its admission, West Virginia's constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of slavery. [[Nevada]], which became the third State in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 300, 539.</ref> {{clear}} ==Assassination== {{main|Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln}} [[John Wilkes Booth]] was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 586–587.</ref> In 1864, Booth formulated a plan (very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy)<ref>Donald (1996), p. 587.</ref> to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. [[File:The Assassination of President Lincoln - Currier and Ives 2.png|thumb|left||alt=A drawing of Lincoln being shot by Booth while sitting in a theater booth.|Shown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are [[Henry Rathbone]], [[Clara Harris]], [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], Abraham Lincoln, and his assassin [[John Wilkes Booth]].]] After attending an April 11, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president.<ref>Harrison (2000), pp. 3–4.</ref> Learning that the President, First Lady, and head Union general Ulysses S. Grant would be attending [[Ford's Theatre]], Booth formulated a plan with co-conspirators to assassinate Vice President [[Andrew Johnson]], Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]] and General Grant. Without his main bodyguard, [[Ward Hill Lamon]], Lincoln left to attend the play ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' on April 14. Grant, along with his wife, chose at the last minute to travel to Philadelphia instead of attending the play.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 594–597.</ref> Lincoln's bodyguard, John Parker, left Ford's Theater during intermission to join Lincoln's coachman for drinks in the Star Saloon next door. The now unguarded President sat in his state box in the balcony. Seizing the opportunity, Booth crept up from behind and at about 10:13&nbsp;pm, aimed at the back of Lincoln's head and fired at point-blank range, mortally wounding the President. Major [[Henry Rathbone]] momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 597.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Lincolns-Missing-Bodyguard.html|title=Lincoln's Missing Bodyguard|first=Paul|last=Martin|date=April 8, 2010|work=Smithsonian Magazine|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62aAqLOzq|archivedate=2011-10-20}}</ref> After being on the run for 10 days, Booth was tracked down and found on a farm in Virginia, some {{convert|70|mi|km}} south of Washington, D.C. After a brief fight with Union troops, Booth was killed by Sergeant [[Boston Corbett]] on April 26.<ref>Donald (1996), p. 599.</ref> An Army surgeon, Doctor [[Charles Leale]], was sitting nearby at the theater and immediately assisted the President. He found the President unresponsive, barely breathing and with no detectable pulse. Having determined that the President had been shot in the head, and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought, he made an attempt to clear the blood clot, after which the President began to breathe more naturally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.yahoo.com/report-first-doctor-reach-shot-lincoln-found-175353998.html|title=Report of first doctor to reach shot Lincoln found}}</ref> The dying President was taken across the street to [[Petersen House]]. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22&nbsp;am on April 15. Presbyterian minister [[Phineas Densmore Gurley]], then present, was asked to offer a prayer, after which Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages."<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 598–599, 686. Witnesses have provided other versions of the quote, i.e. "He now belongs to the ages." and "He is a man for the ages."</ref> Lincoln's flag-enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers, while the city's church bells rang. President Johnson was sworn in at 10:00&nbsp;am, less than 3 hours after Lincoln's death. The late President lay in state in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. For his final journey with his son Willie, both caskets were transported in the executive coach "'''United States'''" and for three weeks the ''Lincoln Special'' [[Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln#Funeral train|funeral train]] decorated in black bunting<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.lincolnfuneraltrain.com/html/funeral_train.html | title = The Lincoln Funeral Train | author = Scott D. Trostel | authorlink = http://www.lincolnfuneraltrain.com/index.html | accessdate = 2012-11-20 }} </ref> bore Lincoln's remains on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois stopping at many cities across the North for large-scale memorials attended by hundreds of thousands, as well as many people who gathered in informal trackside tributes with bands, bonfires and hymn singing<ref>Trostel, pp. 31–58.</ref><ref>Goodrich, pp. 231–238.</ref> or silent reverence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by. ==Religious and philosophical beliefs== {{Further|Abraham Lincoln and religion}} [[File:AbrahamLincolnOilPainting1869Restored.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A painting of Lincoln sitting with his hand on his chin and his elbow on his leg.|''[[Abraham Lincoln (Healy)|Lincoln]]'', painting by [[George Peter Alexander Healy]] in 1869]] As a young man, Lincoln was a [[religious skepticism|religious skeptic]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Douglas L. Wilson|title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KCM50uZMsQMC&pg=PA84|year=1999|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|page=84|isbn=978-0-307-76581-9}}</ref> or, in the words of a biographer, even an [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]].<ref>Carwardine (2003), p. 4.</ref> Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to appeal to his audiences, who were mostly [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] Protestants.<ref>Carwardine (1997), pp. 27–55.</ref> He never joined a church, although he frequently attended with his wife.<ref>On claims that Lincoln was baptized by an associate of [[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]], see {{cite journal|url=http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/vol_38_no_2_contents/martin.html|last=Martin|first=Jim|title=The secret baptism of Abraham Lincoln|journal=Restoration Quarterly|volume=38|issue=2|year=1996}}</ref> but he was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoted it and praised it.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 48–49, 514–515.</ref> He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others. Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. However he did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and, by 1865, was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark A. Noll|title=A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&pg=PA322|year=1992|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|pages=321–22}}</ref> In the 1840s Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power.<ref>Donald (1996), pp. 48–49.</ref> In the 1850s, Lincoln acknowledged "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence.<ref>Grant R. Brodrecht, ''"Our country": Northern evangelicals and the Union during the Civil War and Reconstruction'' (2008) p. 40</ref> When he suffered the death of his son Edward, Lincoln more frequently acknowledged his own need to depend on God.<ref>Parrillo, pp. 227–253.</ref> The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for answers and solace.<ref>Wilson, pp. 251–254.</ref> After Willie's death, Lincoln considered why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."<ref>Wilson, p. 254.</ref> On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the [[Holy Land]].<ref>Guelzo (1999), p. 434</ref> ==Historical reputation== {{see also|Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions}} In [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States|surveys of scholars ranking Presidents]]<!--Lincoln is 1st in 9 of 17 on that page--> since the 1940s, Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three, often #1.<ref name="Ranking Our Presidents"/><ref name="gallup"/> A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington.<ref name="Taranto">Taranto, p. 264.</ref> Of all the presidential ranking polls conducted since 1948, Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls: Schlesinger 1948, Schlesinger 1962, 1982 Murray Blessing Survey, ''Chicago Tribune'' 1982 poll, Schlesinger 1996, CSPAN 1996, Ridings-McIver 1996, ''Time'' 2008, and CSPAN 2009. Generally, the top three presidents are rated as 1. Lincoln; 2. George Washington; and 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, although Lincoln and Washington, and Washington and Roosevelt, occasionally are reversed.<ref>Densen, John V., Editor, ''Reassessing The Presidency, The Rise of the Executive State and the Decline of Freedom'' (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2001), pgs. 1–32; Ridings, William H., & Stuard B. McIver, ''Rating The Presidents, A Ranking of U.S. Leaders, From the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent'' (Citadel Press, Kensington Publishing Corp., 2000).</ref> President Lincoln's assassination made him a national martyr and endowed him with a recognition of mythic proportion. Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability.<ref>Chesebrough, pp. 76, 79, 106, 110.</ref> [[File:Lincoln Museum Exterior.jpg|alt=Exterior photograph of museum|thumb|left|The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] focuses on Lincoln scholarship and popular interpretation]] Schwartz argues that Lincoln's reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century until the [[Progressive Era]] (1900–1920s) when he emerged as one of the most venerated heroes in American history, with even white Southerners in agreement. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the [[Lincoln Memorial]] on the Mall in Washington.<ref>Schwartz (2000), p. 109.</ref> In the [[New Deal]] era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who doubtless would have supported the welfare state. In the [[Cold War]] years, Lincoln's image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by communist regimes.<ref>Schwartz (2009), pp. 23, 91–98.</ref> By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to [[Conservatism in the United States|political conservatives]]<ref>Havers, p. 96. Apart from neo-Confederates such as [[Mel Bradford]] who denounced his treatment of the white South.</ref> for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of [[John Locke|Lockean]] and [[Edmund Burke|Burkean]] principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers.<ref>Belz (2006), pp. 514–518.</ref><ref>Graebner, pp. 67–94.</ref><ref>Smith, pp. 43–45.</ref> As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, internal improvements, and railroads in opposition to the [[Jacksonian Democracy|agrarian Democrats]].<ref>Boritt (1994), pp. 196, 198, 228, 301.</ref> William C. Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and strengthened his conservatism".<ref>Harris, p. 2.</ref> James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and especially his moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform". Randall concludes that, "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders."<ref>Randall (1947), p. 175.</ref> By the late 1960s, liberals, such as historian [[Lerone Bennett, Jr.|Lerone Bennett]], were having second thoughts, especially regarding Lincoln's views on racial issues.<ref>Zilversmit, pp. 22–24.</ref><ref>Smith, p. 42.</ref> Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968.<ref>Bennett, pp. 35–42.</ref> He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs, told jokes that ridiculed blacks, insisted he opposed social equality, and proposed [[American Colonization Society|sending freed slaves]] to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day;<ref>Dirck (2008), p. 31.</ref> and that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible.<ref>Striner, pp. 2–4.</ref> The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln-the-emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation.<ref>Cashin, p. 61.</ref><ref>Kelley & Lewis, p. 228.</ref> Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century.<ref>Schwartz (2009), p. 146.</ref> On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of [[negative capability]], defined by the poet [[John Keats]] and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason".<ref>Donald (1996), p. 15.</ref> Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.<ref>Steven Spielberg, Doris Kearns Goodwin, and Tony Kushner, "Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood", ''Smithsonian'' (2012) 43#7 pp. 46–53.</ref><ref>Melvyn Stokes, "Abraham Lincoln and the Movies", ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 12 (June 2011), 203–31.</ref> ==Memorials== {{Main|Memorials to Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions}} [[File:Aerial view of Lincoln Memorial - east side EDIT.jpeg|thumb|alt=An aerial photo a large white building with big pillars.|[[Lincoln Memorial]] in Washington, D.C.]] Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of [[United States currency]], the [[Penny (United States coin)|penny]] and the [[United States five-dollar bill|$5 bill]]. His likeness also appears on many [[U.S. presidents on U.S. postage stamps#Abraham Lincoln|postage stamps]] and has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,<ref name="Dennis, p. 194">Dennis, p. 194.</ref> including the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital]] of Nebraska. The most famous and most visited memorials are the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in Washington, D.C.; Lincoln's sculpture on [[Mount Rushmore]];<ref>{{cite web|title=Mount Rushmore National Memorial|url=http://www.nps.gov/moru/historyculture/index.htm|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62dfUtolh|archivedate=2011-10-23}}</ref> [[Ford's Theatre]] and [[Petersen House]] (where he died) in Washington and the [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]], located in Springfield, Illinois, not far from [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site|Lincoln's home]] and [[Lincoln's Tomb|his tomb]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alplm.com/|title=The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum|publisher=Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62i1pRLLD|archivedate=2011-10-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordstheatre.org/home/about-fords|title=About Ford's |publisher=Ford's Theatre|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/62i1ux7Sk|archivedate=2011-10-25}}</ref> Barry Schwartz, a sociologist who has examined America's cultural memory, argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life". During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?"<ref>Barry Schwartz, ''Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America'' (2009) pp. xi, 9, 24</ref> However, he also finds that since World War II, Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness".<ref>Barry Schwartz, ''Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America'' (2009) p. xi, 9</ref> He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept. ==See also== {{Wikipedia books}} * [[Dakota War of 1862]] * [[The Towers (Ohio State)|Lincoln Tower]] * [[List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln]] * [[List of civil rights leaders]] {{Portal bar|American Civil War}} ==References== {{Reflist|15em}} ==Bibliography== {{Main|Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln}} ===Cited in footnotes=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Charles F.|date=April 1912|title=The Trent Affair|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=17|issue=3|pages=540–562|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|jstor=1834388|doi=10.2307/1834388}}<!--|doi=10.2307/1834388}} --> * {{cite book|isbn=|oclc=1178496|title=Halleck: Lincoln's Chief of Staff|authorlink=Stephen E. Ambrose|last=Ambrose|first=Stephen E.|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=1962}} * {{Cite book|ref=Baker|last=Baker|first=Jean H.|title=Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1989|isbn=978-0-393-30586-9}} * {{cite book|oclc=518824|title=Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings|editor1-link=Roy Basler|editor1-first=Roy Prentice|editor1-last=Basler|publisher=World Publishing|year=1946}} * Roy P. Basler, ed. ''The collected works of Abraham Lincoln'' (Rutgers U.P., 1953) vol 5 * {{Cite book|ref=Belz|last=Belz|first=Herman|title=Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era|publisher=Fordham University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8232-1769-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Belz|first=Herman|editor1-first=Bruce|editor1-last=Frohnen|editor2-first=Jeremy|editor2-last=Beer|editor3-first=Jeffrey O|editor3-last=Nelson|encyclopedia=American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia |title=Lincoln, Abraham|year=2006|publisher=ISI Books|isbn=978-1-932236-43-9|quote=|ref=}} * {{cite journal|last=Bennett Jr|first=Lerone|authorlink=Lerone Bennett, Jr. |date=February 1968|title=Was Abe Lincoln a White Supremacist?|journal=Ebony|volume=23|issue=4|publisher=Johnson Publishing|issn=0012-9011|url=http://books.google.com/?id=H84DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{Cite book|ref=Blue|last=Blue|first=Frederick J.|title=Salmon P. Chase: a life in politics|publisher=The Kent State University Press|year=1987|isbn=0-87338-340-0}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{Cite book|ref=Boritt1997|last=Boritt|first=Gabor S.|title=Why the Civil War Came|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-511376-1}} --> * {{cite book|isbn=0-252-06445-3|title=Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream|url=|authorlink=Gabor Boritt|ref=Boritt1994|last=Boritt|first=Gabor|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1994|origyear=1978}} * {{Cite book|ref=Bulla|last1=Bulla|first1= David W.|author2=Gregory A. Borchard|title=Journalism in the Civil War Era|year=2010|publisher=Peter Lang Publishing Inc.|isbn=1-4331-0722-8}} * {{cite journal|last=Carwardine|first=Richard J.|authorlink=Richard Carwardine|date=Winter 1997|title=Lincoln, Evangelical Religion, and American Political Culture in the Era of the Civil War|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|volume=18|issue=1|pages=27–55 |publisher=Abraham Lincoln Association|issn=|oclc= |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/18.1/carwardine.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124091750/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/18.1/carwardine.html |archivedate=2009-11-24}} * {{Cite book|ref=Carwardine|first=Richard|last=Carwardine|title=Lincoln|publisher=Pearson Education Ltd|year=2003|isbn=978-0-582-03279-8 }} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-691-09173-0|title=The War Was You and Me: Civilians in The American Civil War|last=Cashin|first=Joan E.|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2002}} * {{Cite book|ref=Chesebrough|last=Chesebrough|first=David B.|title=No Sorrow Like Our Sorrow|publisher=Kent State University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-87338-491-9}} * {{Cite book|ref=Cox|last=Cox|first=Hank H.|title=Lincoln And The Sioux Uprising of 1862|publisher=Cumberland House Publisher|year=2005|isbn=978-1-58182-457-5}} * {{Cite book|ref=Cummings|last1=Cummings|first1=William W.|author2=James B. 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A. Knopf|year=1948|oclc=186314258}} * {{Cite book|ref=Donald|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|title=Lincoln|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1996|origyear=1995|isbn=978-0-684-82535-9}} * {{Cite book|ref=Donald2|first=David Herbert|last=Donald|title=Lincoln Reconsidered|year=2001|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-375-72532-6}} * {{Cite book|authorlink=Frederick Douglass|ref=Douglass|first=Frederick|last=Douglass|title=The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass|year=2008|publisher=Cosimo Classics|isbn=1-60520-399-8}} * {{Cite book|ref=Edgar|first=Walter B.|last=Edgar|title=South Carolina: A History|year=1998|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-255-4}} * {{cite journal|last=Fish|first=Carl Russell|authorlink=Carl Russell Fish |date=October 1902|title=Lincoln and the Patronage|journal=American Historical Review|volume=8|issue=1|pages=53–69|publisher=American Historical Association|issn=|oclc=|jstor=1832574|doi=10.2307/1832574}} * {{Cite book|ref=Foner|authorlink=Eric Foner|last=Foner|first=Eric |title=Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War|year=1995|origyear=1970|isbn=978-0-19-509497-8|publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{Cite book|ref=Foner2|last=Foner|first= Eric|title=[[The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery]]|publisher=W.W. 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Guelzo|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|title=Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President|isbn=0-8028-3872-3|year=1999|publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Publishing}} * {{cite book|ref=Guelzo2004|isbn=978-0-7432-2182-5|oclc=|title=Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2004}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE* {{Cite book|ref=Guelzo2009|last=Guelzo|first=Allen C.|title=Lincoln: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=0-19-536780-4}} --> * {{Cite book|ref=Handy|first= James S.|last=Handy|title=Book Review: Abraham Lincoln, the Lawyer-Statesman|publisher=Northwestern University Law Publication Association|year=1917 }} * {{Cite book|ref=Harrison1935|oclc=3512772|last=Harrison|first=J. Houston|title=Settlers by the Long Grey Trail|year=1935|publisher=J.K. 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Press of Mississippi|isbn= 978-1-60473-987-9}} * {{cite book|ref=McPherson1992|last=McPherson|first=James M.|authorlink=James M. McPherson|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution|year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507606-6}} * {{Cite book|ref=McPherson2|title=[[Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era]]|last=McPherson|first=James M.|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-516895-2}} * {{Cite book|ref=McPherson5|last=McPherson|first=James M.|title=Abraham Lincoln|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537452-0}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{Cite book|ref=Miller |first=William Lee |last=Miller |title=Lincoln's Virtues: An Ethical Biography |year=2002 |isbn=0-375-40158-X |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf }} --> <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{Cite book|authorlink=Mark E. Neely, Jr.|ref=Neely |last=Neely |first=Mark E. |title=The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-19-508032-2}} --> * {{cite journal|last=Neely Jr.|first=Mark E.|date=December 2004|title=Was the Civil War a Total War?|journal=Civil War History|volume=50 |issue=4|pages=434–458|issn=|oclc= |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/civil_war_history/v050/50.4neely.html |doi=10.1353/cwh.2004.0073}} * {{Cite book|ref=Nevins|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=Ordeal of the Union; 8 vol|publisher=Scribner's|year=1947–71|isbn=978-0-684-10416-4}} ** {{Cite book|ref=Nevins1950|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1857–1861 2 vol|publisher=Scribner's|year=1950|isbn=978-0-684-10416-4}}, also published as vol 3–4 of ''Ordeal of the Union'' ** {{Cite book|ref=Nevins1960|last=Nevins|first=Allan|title=The War for the Union; 4 vol 1861–1865|publisher=Scribner's|year=1960–1971|isbn=978-1-56852-297-5}}; also published as vol 5–8 of ''Ordeal of the Union'' * {{cite book|ref=Nichols|last=Nichols|first=David A.|title=Lincoln Looks West: From the Mississippi to the Pacific|editor=Richard W. Etulain|publisher=Southern Illinois University|year=2010|isbn=0-8093-2961-1}} * {{Cite book|ref=Noll|last=Noll|first=Mark|title=America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-19-515111-9}} * {{Cite book|ref=Oates|last=Oates|first=Stephen B.|authorlink=Stephen B. Oates|title=With Malice Toward None: a Life of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1993|isbn=978-0-06-092471-3}} * {{Cite book|ref=Paludan|last=Paludan|first=Phillip Shaw|title=The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln|isbn=978-0-7006-0671-9|year=1994|publisher=University Press of Kansas}} * {{cite journal|last=Parrillo|first=Nicholas |date=September 2000|title=Lincoln's Calvinist Transformation: Emancipation and War|journal=Civil War History|volume=46|issue=3|pages=227–253|publisher=Kent State University Press|issn=|oclc=|url=|doi=10.1353/cwh.2000.0073}} * {{Cite book|ref=Pessen|last=Pessen|first=Edward|title=The Log Cabin Myth: The Social Backgrounds of American Presidents|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1984|isbn=0-300-03166-1}} * {{Cite book|ref=Peterson|last=Peterson|first=Merrill D.|title=Lincoln in American Memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-19-509645-3}} * {{Cite book|ref=Potter|last1=Potter|first1=David M.|author2=Don Edward Fehrenbacher|title=The impending crisis, 1848–1861|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1976|isbn=978-0-06-131929-7}} * {{Cite book|ref=Prokopowicz|last=Prokopowicz|first=Gerald J.|title=Did Lincoln Own Slaves?|publisher=Vintage Books|year=2008|isbn=978-0-307-27929-3}} * {{cite book|oclc=748479|ref=Randall1947|last=Randall|first=James G.|authorlink=James G. Randall|title=Lincoln, the Liberal Statesman|year=1947|publisher=Dodd, Mead}} * {{Cite book|oclc=5852442|ref=Randall|last1=Randall|first1=J.G.|author2=Current, Richard Nelson|series=Lincoln the President|volume=IV|title=Last Full Measure|publisher=Dodd, Mead|year=1955}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE * {{Cite book|ref=Reinhart|last=Reinhart|first=Mark S.|title=Abraham Lincoln on Screen|publisher=McFarland|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7864-3536-4}} --> * {{Cite book|oclc=6579822|ref=Sandburg|last=Sandburg|first=Carl |title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years|year=1926|publisher=Harcourt, Brace & Company}} * {{cite book|ref=SandburgPW2002|last=Sandburg| first=Carl|title=Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years and the War Years|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2002|isbn=0-15-602752-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Schwartz2000|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory|year=2000|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-74197-0}} * {{Cite book|ref=Schwartz2009|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|title=Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-226-74188-8}} * {{cite journal|last=Scott|first=Kenneth|date=September 1948|title=Press Opposition to Lincoln in New Hampshire|journal=The New England Quarterly|volume=21|issue=3|pages=326–341|publisher=The New England Quarterly, Inc.|issn=|jstor=361094|doi=10.2307/361094}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE * {{Cite book|ref=Scott|last=Scott|title=Scott 2006 Classic Specialized Catalogue|publisher=Scott Pub. Co.|year=2005|isbn=0-89487-358-X}} --> * {{Cite book|ref=Sherman|last=Sherman|first=William T.|title=Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman|publisher=BiblioBazaar|year=1990|isbn=1-174-63172-4}} * {{Cite book|ref=Simon|last=Simon|first=Paul|title=Lincoln's Preparation for Greatness: The Illinois Legislative Years|publisher=University of Illinois|year=1990|isbn=0-252-00203-2}} * {{cite book|ref=Smith|last=Smith|first=Robert C.|title=Conservatism and Racism, and Why in America They Are the Same|year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-3233-5}} * {{Cite book|ref=Steers|last=Steers|first=Edward|title=The Lincoln Assassination Encyclopedia|publisher=Harper Collins|year=2010|isbn=0-06-178775-2}} * {{cite book| last=Striner| first=Richard| title=Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-518306-1}} * {{cite book|ref=Tagg|title=The Unpopular Mr. Lincoln:The Story of America's Most Reviled President|first=Larry|last=Tagg|publisher=Savas Beatie|year=2009|isbn=978-1-932714-61-6}} * {{Cite book|ref=Taranto|last1=Taranto|first1=James|author2=Leonard Leo|title=Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7432-5433-5}} * {{cite journal|last=Tegeder|first=Vincent G.|date=June 1948|title=Lincoln and the Territorial Patronage: The Ascendancy of the Radicals in the West|journal=Mississippi Valley Historical Review|volume=35|issue=1|pages=77–90|publisher=Organization of American Historians|issn=|oclc=|jstor=1895140|doi=10.2307/1895140}} <!-- NOT CITED IN ARTICLE *{{cite book|isbn=978-0-8071-3231-9|oclc=|title=Inside the Confederate Nation: Essays in Honor of Emory M. Thomas|url=|authorlink=Emory M. Thomas|last= Thomas|first=Emory M.|editor1-first=Lesley J.|editor1-last=Gordon|editor2-first=John C.|editor2-last=Inscoe|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year=2007}} --> * {{Cite book|ref=Thomas|first=Benjamin P.|last=Thomas|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Southern Illinois University|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8093-2887-1}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-925436-21-4|oclc=|title=The Lincoln Funeral Train: The Final Journey and National Funeral for Abraham Lincoln|last=Trostel|first=Scott D.|publisher=Cam-Tech Publishing|year=2002}} * {{Cite book|ref=Vorenberg|last=Vorenberg|first=Michael|title=Final Freedom: the Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-65267-4}} * {{Cite book|ref=White|last=White, Jr.|first=Ronald C.|title=A. Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Random House, Inc|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4000-6499-1}} * {{Cite book|ref=Wills|first=Garry|last=Wills|authorlink=Garry Wills|title=[[Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America]]|isbn=0-671-86742-3|year=1993|publisher=Simon & Schuster }} * {{Cite book|ref=Wilson|first=Douglas L.|last=Wilson|publisher=Knopf Publishing Group|title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|year=1999|isbn=978-0-375-70396-6 }} * {{cite book|ref=Winkle|last=Winkle|first=Kenneth J.|title=The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln|year=2001|publisher=Taylor Trade Publications|isbn=978-0-87833-255-7}} * {{Cite book|ref=Zarefsky|authorlink=David Zarefsky|isbn=978-0-226-97876-5|title=Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate|last=Zarefsky|first=David S.|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1993}} * {{cite journal|last=Zilversmit|first=Arthur|year=1980|title=Lincoln and the Problem of Race: A Decade of Interpretations|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|volume=2|issue=11|pages=22–24|publisher=Abraham Lincoln Association|url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/2/zilversmit.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720234453/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jala/2/zilversmit.html|archivedate=2011-07-20|ref=}} {{Refend}} ===Historiography=== * {{cite book|isbn=978-1-58182-369-1|title=One Hundred Essential Lincoln Books|last=Burkhimer|first=Michael|publisher=Cumberland House|location=|year=2003}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-393-06756-9|title=Our Lincoln: New Perspectives on Lincoln and His World|last=Foner|first=Eric|publisher=W.W. Norton |location=|year=2008}} * Manning, Chandra, "The Shifting Terrain of Attitudes toward Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation," ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association,'' 34 (Winter 2013), 18–39. * Smith, Adam I.P. "The 'Cult' of Abraham Lincoln and the Strange Survival of Liberal England in the Era of the World Wars," ''Twentieth Century British History,'' (Dec 2010) 21#4 pp 486–509 * Spielberg, Steven; Goodwin, Doris Kearns; Kushner, Tony. "Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood," ''Smithsonian'' (2012) 43#7 pp 46–53. ===Additional references=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-8018-8993-6|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Life ''(2 volumes)''|authorlink=Michael Burlingame (historian)|last=Burlingame|first=Michael|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=|year=2008}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-87249-400-8|title=Lincoln and Black Freedom: A Study in Presidential Leadership|authorlink=LaWanda Cox |last=Cox|first=LaWanda|publisher=University of South Carolina Press |location=|year=1981}} * Green, Michael S. ''Lincoln and the Election of 1860'' (Concise Lincoln Library) [http://www.amazon.com/Lincoln-Election-1860-Concise-Library/dp/0809330350/ excerpt and text search] * {{cite book|author=Holzer, Harold|title=Lincoln President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 1860–1861|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=34cVaFHdgMMC|year=2008|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-8947-4}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-1-59420-191-2|title=Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief|last=McPherson|first=James M.|publisher=Penguin Press |location=|year=2008}} * {{cite book|author=Miller, Richard Lawrence|title=Lincoln and His World: The Rise to National Prominence, 1843–1853|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=c1odBTiRSJcC|year=2011|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-5928-5}}, vol 3. of detailed biography * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-306-80209-6|title=The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia|last=Neely|first=Mark E|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=1984}} * {{cite book|isbn=978-0-674-51125-5|title=The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America |last=Neely|first=Mark E|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1994}} * {{cite book|isbn=|oclc=4183070|title=Lincoln the President ''(4 volumes)''|last=Randall|first=James G.|publisher=Dodd, Mead |location=|year=1945–1955}} {{Refend}} ==External links== <!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | ==={{No more links}}=========--> {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Abraham Lincoln | b=no | n=no | q=Abraham Lincoln | s=Author:Abraham Lincoln|v=no|voy=no|species=no|d=no|display=Abraham Lincoln}} * [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln] * {{CongBio|L000313}} * [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/alhome.html Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library] * [http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?the-government-is-about-to-fall-into-our-hands-1860-abraham-lincoln Abraham Lincoln: Original Letters and Manuscripts] Shapell Manuscript Foundation * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/prespoetry/al.html Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln] * [http://www.alplm.org/AboutUs/AbouttheFoundation.aspx The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum] Springfield, Illinois * [http://www.papersofabrahamlincoln.org/ The Papers of Abraham Lincoln] documentary editing project * {{US patent |6469 |US PATNo. 6,469}}—''Manner of Buoying Vessels''—A. Lincoln—1849 * [http://edsitement.neh.gov/teaching-abraham-lincoln#node-19470 National Endowment for the Humanities Spotlight&nbsp;– Abraham Lincoln] * [http://www.lincolnbicentennial.org/ The Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Foundation] * [http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/ Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, Northern Illinois University Libraries] * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/lincoln/ Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110725003410/http://americanpresidents.org/presidents/president.asp?PresidentNumber=16 Abraham Lincoln] at [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'' * [http://legacy.c-span.org/Series/Lincoln-200-Years.aspx C-SPAN's ''Lincoln 200 Years''] *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/stern-lincoln/ The Alfred Whital Stern Collection of Lincolniana] From the Collections at the Library of Congress {{Abraham Lincoln}} {{Navboxes |title=Offices and distinctions |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States Representatives from Illinois|House of Representatives]]<br />from [[Illinois's 7th congressional district]]|years=1847–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. Harris|Thomas Harris]]}} {{s-break}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[John C. Frémont|John Frémont]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|presidential nominee]] |years=[[United States presidential election, 1860|1860]], [[United States presidential election, 1864|1864]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ulysses S. Grant|Ulysses Grant]]}} {{s-break}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James Buchanan]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States]]|years=1861–1865}} {{s-aft|after=[[Andrew Johnson]]}} {{s-break}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Clay]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Persons who have [[lying in state|lain in state or honor]]<br />in the [[United States Capitol rotunda]]|years=1865}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thaddeus Stevens]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Navboxes |title=Articles related to Abraham Lincoln |list1= {{Lincoln–Douglas debates}} {{US Presidents}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{Lincoln cabinet}} {{American Civil War}} }} {{Authority control|GND=11857308X|ULAN=500344436}} {{good article}} {{Persondata | NAME =Lincoln, Abraham | ALTERNATIVE NAMES = | SHORT DESCRIPTION =16th President of the United States | DATE OF BIRTH =February 12, 1809 | PLACE OF BIRTH =Hardin County, Kentucky | DATE OF DEATH =April 15, 1865 | PLACE OF DEATH =Washington, D.C. }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lincoln, Abraham}} [[Category:Abraham Lincoln| ]] [[Category:1809 births]] [[Category:1865 deaths]] [[Category:American people of English descent]] [[Category:Assassinated heads of state]] [[Category:Assassinated United States Presidents]] [[Category:Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C.]] [[Category:Illinois lawyers]] [[Category:Illinois Republicans]] [[Category:Illinois Whigs]] [[Category:Lincoln family|Abraham]] [[Category:Members of the Illinois House of Representatives]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois]] [[Category:People from Coles County, Illinois]] [[Category:People from LaRue County, Kentucky]] [[Category:People from Macon County, Illinois]] [[Category:People from Spencer County, Indiana]] [[Category:People from Springfield, Illinois]] [[Category:People murdered in Washington, D.C.]] [[Category:People of Illinois in the American Civil War]] [[Category:Political party founders]] [[Category:American postmasters]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States]] [[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees]] [[Category:Republican Party Presidents of the United States]] [[Category:Smallpox survivors]] [[Category:Union political leaders]] [[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1860]] [[Category:United States presidential candidates, 1864]] {{Link FA|ca}} {{Link FA|de}} {{Link GA|fi}} n9udxcri30vsba5vg7jsnhlb3p4ovoa wikitext text/x-wiki 0 308 601955142 601954967 2014-03-30T13:08:48Z JaKoBay 1995803 {{other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{Infobox philosopher |name = Aristotle |image = Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg |caption = Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by [[Lysippus]], [[Circa|c.]]&nbsp;{{BCE|link|330}}.<br/>The [[alabaster]] mantle is modern. |birth_date = {{ubl |{{BCE|384}} |[[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], |Chalcidice ([[Chalkidiki]]), |northern [[Greece]]}} |death_date = {{ubl |{{BCE|322}} (aged 62) |[[Euboea]], Greece}} |nationality = [[Greeks|Greek]] |era = [[Ancient philosophy]] |region = [[Western philosophy]] |school_tradition = {{ubl |[[Peripatetic school]] |[[Aristotelianism]]}} |main_interests = {{hlist |[[Biology]] |[[Zoology]] |[[Physics]] |[[Metaphysics]] |[[Logic]] |Ethics |Music |Poetry |Theatre |[[Rhetoric]] |Politics |Government}} |notable_ideas = {{ubl |[[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden mean]] |[[Aristotelian logic]] |[[Syllogism]] |[[Hexis]] |[[Hylomorphism]] |[[On the Soul|Theory of the soul]]}} |influences = {{hlist |[[Parmenides]] |[[Socrates]] |[[Plato]] |[[Heraclitus]] |[[Democritus]]}} |influenced = <div style="line-height:1.3em;">Virtually all subsequent [[Western philosophy]], [[Christian philosophy]] and pre-[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] science and much [[Islamic philosophy|Islamic]] and [[Jewish philosophy]]; see [[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]].</div> }} {{Aristotelianism |width=22.0em}} '''Aristotle''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|r|ɪ|ˌ|s|t|ɒ|t|əl}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aristotle "Aristotle"] entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]'', HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.</ref> {{lang-grc-gre|Ἀριστοτέλης}} {{IPA-grc|aristotélɛːs}}, ''Aristotélēs''; 384{{spaced ndash}}{{BCE|link|322}})<ref>That these undisputed dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BCE, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown already by [[August Boeckh]] (''Kleine Schriften'' VI 195); for further discussion, see [[Felix Jacoby]] on ''[[FGrHist]]'' 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957, {{p.|253}}.</ref> was a [[Greeks|Greek]] philosopher born in [[Stagirus]], northern [[Greece]], in {{BCE|link|384}}. His father, [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], died when Aristotle was a child, whereafter [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biography of Aristotle|url=http://www.biography.com/people/aristotle-9188415?page=1#early-life|publisher=Biography.com|accessdate=12 March 2014}}</ref> At eighteen, he joined [[Plato's Academy]] in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven ([[Circa|c.]]&nbsp;{{BCE|347}}). His writings cover many subjects{{spaced ndash}}including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[biology]], [[zoology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], ethics, [[aesthetics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], theater, music, [[rhetoric]], [[linguistics]], politics and government{{spaced ndash}}and constitute the first comprehensive system of [[Western philosophy]]. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of [[Philip of Macedonia]], tutored [[Alexander the Great]] between 356 and {{BCE|323}}. According to the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], "Aristotle was the first genuine scientist in history.&nbsp;... Every scientist is in his debt."{{citation needed|date=February 2014}} Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the [[Lyceum]] which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of [[Platonism]], but, following Plato's death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to [[empiricism]].{{sfn|Barnes|2007|p=6}} He believed all peoples' concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotle's views on [[natural science]]s represent the groundwork underlying many of his works. Aristotle's views on [[Aristotelian physics|physical science]] profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended into the [[Renaissance]] and were not replaced systematically until [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and theories such as [[classical mechanics]]. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century.{{examples|date=February 2014}} His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern [[formal logic]]. In metaphysics, [[Aristotelianism]] profoundly influenced [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)|Judeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought]] during the [[Middle Ages]] and continues to influence [[Christian theology]], especially the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as "The First Teacher" ({{lang-ar|{{big|المعلم الأول}}}}). His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]]. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues{{spaced ndash}}[[Cicero]] described his literary style as "a river of gold"<ref>{{cite web |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius |title=Flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles |work=Academica |publisher= |date=106–43 BC |url=http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/4/9/7/14970/14970-h/14970-h.htm#BkII_119 |doi= |accessdate=25 January 2007}}</ref>{{spaced ndash}}it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived.<ref>[[Jonathan Barnes]], "Life and Work" in ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle'' (1995), {{p.|9}}.</ref> == Life == Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose",<ref>{{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Michael |title=Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name "Aristotle" |url=http://www.behindthename.com/name/aristotle |work=Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names |publisher=www.behindthename.com |accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> was born in {{BCE|384}} in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55&nbsp;km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Aristotle: The Great Philosophers |author=McLeisch, Kenneth Cole |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=0-415-92392-1 |page=5}}</ref> His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of]] [[Macedon]]. Although there is little information on Aristotle's childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.<ref>Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Life" in ''A Companion to Aristotle'' (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), {{p.|4}}.</ref> At about the age of eighteen, Aristotle moved to [[Athens]] to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]]. He remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in {{BCE|348/47}}. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato had died.<ref name="Lord Intro">Carnes Lord, introduction to ''The Politics'' by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).</ref> Aristotle and Plato's compatibility has been a strongly debated topic. Recently, [[Harold Cherniss]] summarized Aristotle's Platonism from the standpoint of [[Classics|classicist]] [[Werner Jaeger]], stating that: "Jaeger, in whose eyes Plato's philosophy was the "matter" out of which the newer and higher form of Aristotle's thought proceeded by a gradual but steady and undeviating development (''Aristotles'', {{p.|11}}), pronounced the "old controversy", whether or not Aristotle understood Plato, to be "''absolut verstandnislos''". Yet this did not prevent Leisegang{{who|date=February 2014}} from reasserting that Aristotle's own pattern of thinking was incompatible with a proper understanding of Plato."<ref>Cherniss, Harold (1962). ''Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the Academy'', Russell and Russell, Inc., {{p.|xi}}.</ref><ref>''Aristoteles: Grundlegung einer Geschichte seiner Entwicklung'' (1923; English trans. Richard Robinson (1902–1996) as ''Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development'', 1934).</ref> Contrary to Leisegang's sympathies, Jaeger was sympathetic to a compatible reading of Aristotle and Plato. Aristotle then accompanied [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. There, he traveled with [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island. Aristotle married [[Pythias]], either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] in {{BCE|343}}.<ref name="philosophy1972">Bertrand Russell, ''A History of Western Philosophy'', Simon & Schuster, 1972.</ref> [[File:Arabic aristotle.jpg|thumb|An early Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right) and [[Alexander the Great]].]] Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]].<ref name="Peter Green">Peter Green, ''Alexander of Macedon'', University of California Press Ltd. (Oxford, England) 1991, {{p.|58|59}}</ref> Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and his attitude towards [[Persia]] was unabashedly [[Ethnocentricism|ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".<ref name="Peter Green"/> By {{BCE|335}}, Artistotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. According to the [[Suda]], he also had an [[eromenos]], [[Palaephatus|Palaephatus of Abydus]].<ref>William George Smith,''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', {{vol.|3}}, [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2421.html {{p.|88}}]</ref> This period in Athens, between 335 and {{BCE|323}}, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[De Anima]]'' (''On the Soul'') and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, [[embryology]], geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. Near the end of his life, Alexander became [[Paranoia|paranoid]] and wrote threatening letters to Aristotle. Aristotle had made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's pretense of divinity and the king had executed Aristotle's grandnephew [[Callisthenes]] as a traitor. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence.<ref>Peter Green, ''Alexander of Macedon'', University of California Press Ltd. (Oxford, England), 1991, {{p.|379}} and 459.</ref> Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In {{BCE|322}}, [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods in honor, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis]], explaining: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=W. T. |title=The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |year=1980 |page=216 |isbn=0155383124}}</ref><ref>''Vita Marciana'' 41, cf. [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] ''Varia historica'' 3.36, Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957, T44a-e.</ref>{{spaced ndash}}a reference to Athens's prior [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. He died in Euboea of [[natural causes]] later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC&pg=PA3862&dq=Antipater+Aristotle+will&sig=sQzQVBdRmk-spNdZnyd1MwzAPTc Aristotle's Will], ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt'' by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase.</ref> In general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.<ref>See Shields, C., "Aristotle's Philosophical Life and Writings" in ''The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 2012), {{pp.|3|16}}. Düring, I., ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'' (Göteborg, 1957) is a collection of [an overview of?] ancient biographies of Aristotle.</ref> == Memory == According to Aristotle, [[memory]] is the ability to hold a perceived experience in your mind and to have the ability to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bloch |first=David |url=http://books.google.com/?id=QwTHng_5RqAC&pg=PR9&dq=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20on%20Memory%20and%20Recollection&f=false |title=Aristotle on Memory and Recollection |year=2007 |page=12|isbn=9004160469 }}</ref> In other words, a memory is a mental picture ([[wikt:phantasm|phantasm]]) in which Aristotle defines in ''De Anima'', as an appearance which is imprinted on the part of the body that forms a memory. Aristotle believed an "imprint" becomes impressed on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when a [[stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] is too complex that the nervous system (semi-fluid bodily organ) cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of [[sense|sensation]], [[common sense]], and [[thinking]] .{{sfn|Bloch|2007|p=61}} The mental picture imprinted on the bodily organ is the final product of the entire process of sense perception. It does not matter if the experience was seen or heard, every experience ends up as a mental image in memory <ref>{{cite book |last=Carruthers |first=Mary |url=http://books.google.com/?id=dntrAnqfIasC&pg=PR8&dq=The+book+of+memory:+the+study+of+memory+in+medieval+times#v=onepage&q=The%20book%20of%20memory%3A%20the%20study%20of%20memory%20in%20medieval%20times&f=false |title=The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture |year=2007 |page=16|isbn=9780521429733 }}</ref> Aristotle uses the word "memory" for two basic abilities. First, the actual retaining of the experience in the [[mnemonic]] "imprint" that can develop from sensation. Second, the intellectual anxiety that comes with the "imprint" due to being impressed at a particular time and processing specific contents. These abilities can be explained as memory is neither sensation nor thinking because is arises only after a lapse of time. Therefore, memory is of the past, {{sfn|Bloch|2007|p=25}} prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. The retrieval of our "imprints" cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience. Aristotle proposed that slow-witted people have good memory because the fluids in their brain do not wash away their memory organ used to imprint experiences and so the "imprint" can easily continue. However, they cannot be too slow or the hardened surface of the organ will not receive new "imprints". He believed the young and the old do not properly develop an "imprint". Young people undergo rapid changes as they develop, while the elderly's organs are beginning to decay, thus stunting new "imprints". Likewise, people who are too quick-witted are similar to the young and the image cannot be fixed because of the rapid changes of their organ. Because intellectual functions are not involved in memory, memories belong to some animals too, but only those in which have [[perception]] of time. ===Recollection=== Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and people perceive them as images or "imprints", people are continually weaving together new "imprints" of things they experience. In order to search for these "imprints", people search the memory itself.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=Howard |url=http://books.google.com/?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology#v=onepage&q=The%20history%20of%20the%20association%20of%20psychology&f=false |title=A History of the Association Psychology |year=1921 |page=30}}</ref> Within the memory, if one [[experience]] is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. [[Recall (memory)|Recollection]] occurs when one experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the other. If the chain of "images" is not needed, but expected, then it will only stimulate the other memory in most instances. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they have stimulated the one that was needed .{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=25}} Recollection is the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory "imprint" after some time has passed. Retrieval of stored information is dependent on the scope of mnemonic capabilities of a being (human or animal) and the abilities the human or animal possesses .{{sfn|Carruthers|2007|p=19}} Only humans will remember "imprints" of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time will be able to retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. Recollection of an "imprint" is when the present experiences a person remembers are similar with elements corresponding in character and arrangement of past sensory experiences. When an "imprint" is recalled, it may bring forth a large group of related "imprints" .{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=296}} Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain "imprints", was connected systematically in three sorts of relationships: similarity, contrast, and contiguity. These three laws make up his [[Laws of Association]]. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within our mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled .{{sfn|Warren|1921|p=259}} == Thought == ===Logic=== [[File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg|thumb|upright|Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' as a scholar of the 15th century CE.]] {{main|Term logic}} {{details|Non-Aristotelian logic}} With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,<ref>MICHAEL DEGNAN, 1994. Recent Work in Aristotle's Logic. ''Philosophical Books'' 35.2 (April 1994): 81–89.</ref> and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in [[mathematical logic]].<ref>Corcoran, John (2009). "Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic". History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20.</ref> [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of [[deductive inference]]. ====History==== Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'".<ref>{{cite book | last =Bocheński | first =I. M. | title =Ancient Formal Logic | publisher =North-Holland Publishing Company | year =1951 | location =Amsterdam }}</ref> However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was devised before him, by [[Prodicus of Ceos]], who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a [[deductive system]], he could never actually construct one, thus he relied instead on his [[dialectic]].<ref name="Bocheński, 1951">Bocheński, 1951.</ref> Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from [[premise]]s, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the [[Logical consequence|conclusion]] would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'', where he introduced his division method.<ref>{{cite book | last =Rose | first =Lynn E. | title =Aristotle's Syllogistic | publisher =Charles C Thomas Publisher | year =1968 | location =Springfield }}</ref> ====Analytics and the ''Organon''==== {{main|Organon}} What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'', Aristotle himself would have labeled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century CE: #''Categories'' #''On Interpretation'' #''Prior Analytics'' #''Posterior Analytics'' #''Topics'' #''On Sophistical Refutations'' The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics'') and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.''<ref name="Bocheński, 1951"/> ===Aristotle's epistemology=== [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''[[The School of Athens]]''<!--This should link to an article about the famous artwork-->, a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in [[The Forms]].]] {{details|Aristotle's theory of universals}} [[File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg|thumb|"Aristotle" by Francesco Hayez (1791–1882)]] Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Universality (philosophy)|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]], however, finds the universal in [[particular]] things, which he calls the essence of things, while in Plato's ontology, the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their [[prototype]] or [[wikt:exemplar|exemplar]]. For Aristotle, therefore, [[epistemology]] is based on the study of particular phenomena and rises to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of [[phenomena]] but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see ''[[Aristotle#Universals and particulars|Universals and particulars]]'', below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], while Plato's is essentially deductive from ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' principles.<ref>{{cite book | last =Jori | first =Alberto | title =Aristotele | publisher =Bruno Mondadori Editore | year =2003 | location =Milano }}</ref> In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of ''philosophy'' has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the [[scientific method]]. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics. If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) [[Logic]]; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics; (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy. In the period between his two stays in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform [[original research]] in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences. Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers. His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his ''[[History of Animals]]'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females.<ref>Aristotle, ''History of Animals'', 2.3.</ref> In a similar vein, [[John Philoponus]], and later [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/#2.2 |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Plato.stanford.edu |accessdate=26 April 2009}}</ref> On the other hand, Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given "current astronomical demonstrations" that "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then&nbsp;... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."<ref>Aristotle, ''Meteorology'' 1.8, trans. E.W. Webster, rev. J. Barnes.</ref> In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched [[reason]]. Today's scientific method assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and that discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle used to support his laws. Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a [[geocentrism|geocentric cosmology]] that we may discern in selections of the ''Metaphysics'', which was widely accepted up until the 16th century. From the 3rd century to the 16th century, the dominant view held that the Earth was the rotational [[History of the Center of the Universe|center of the universe]]. Because he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took Aristotle's erroneous positions as given, which held back science in this epoch.<ref>[[John Burnet (classicist)|Burent, John.]] 1928. ''Platonism'', Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 61, 103–104.</ref> However, Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants. ===Geology=== As quoted from [[w:Charles Lyell|Charles Lyell's]] ''[[Principles of Geology]]'': <blockquote><p>He [Aristotle] refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on, and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages. He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up, and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized. He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer, to the shallowing of the [[Palus Maeotis]] within sixty years from his own time&nbsp;... He alludes&nbsp;... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. The changes of the earth, he says, are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes, and their removal to other regions, cause the event to be forgotten.</p><p>He says [12th chapter of his ''Meteorics''] 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time, but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land, and again it becomes land where it was sea, and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system, and within a certain period.' The concluding observation is as follows: 'As time never fails, and the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, nor the Nile, can have flowed for ever. The places where they rise were once dry, and there is a limit to their operations, but there is none to time. So also of all other rivers; they spring up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course of time.'<ref>[[wikiquote:Charles Lyell|Charles Lyell]], ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mmIOAAAAQAAJ& Principles of Geology]'', 1832, p.17</ref></p></blockquote> ===Physics=== {{main|Physics (Aristotle)}} ====Five elements==== {{main|Classical element}} Aristotle proposed a fifth element, aether, in addition to the four proposed earlier by [[Empedocles]]. *[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], which is cold and dry; this corresponds to the modern idea of a solid. *[[Water (classical element)|Water]], which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a liquid. *[[Air (classical element)|Air]], which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a gas. *[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the modern ideas of [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] and heat. *[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], which is the divine substance that makes up the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]] and heavenly bodies (stars and planets). Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place. All that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e., the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere (in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved out of their natural place, they naturally move back towards it. This is "natural motion"—motion requiring no extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and flame rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fifth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in the perfection of circles. ====Motion==== {{main|potentiality and actuality}} Aristotle defined [[Motion (physics)|motion]] as the actuality of a potentiality ''as such''.<ref>''Physics'' 201a10–11, 201a27–29, 201b4–5</ref> Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulfillment of a potential, as a transition toward a potentially possible state. Because [[Aristotle#Substance, potentiality and actuality|actuality and potentiality]] are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the "as such" to the definition is critical to understanding it.<ref>{{Citation|last=Sachs|first=Joe|title=Aristotle: Motion and its Place in Nature|year=2005|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/|journal=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> ====Causality, the four causes==== <!--Linked from [[Retrocausality]] and [[Physics (Aristotle)]] (see [[WP:MOS#Section management]])--> {{main|Four causes}} Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors: *[[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino. *The [[formal cause]] is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create his drawings. *The [[efficient cause]] is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. So, take the two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over. *The [[final cause]] is its purpose, or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or teleos is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need, desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs. Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event. Our two dominoes require someone or something to intentionally knock over the first domino, because it cannot fall of its own accord. Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect. ====Optics==== Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a [[camera obscura]] can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in ''Problemata''. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or [[aperture]], to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the [[Diaphragm (optics)|diaphragm]]. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Lahanas |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |publisher=Mlahanas.de |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm| archivedate= 11 April 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> ====Chance and spontaneity==== According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[sumbebekos|accidental things]]. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. There is also more specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that can only apply to human beings, because it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance".<ref>Aristotle, ''Physics'' 2.6</ref> ===Metaphysics=== [[File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|thumb|Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the [[University of Freiburg]] [[Freiburg im Breisgau|im Breisgau]]]] {{main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of [[hylomorphism|immaterial]] being," or of "being in the highest degree of [[abstraction]]." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science." ====Substance, potentiality and actuality==== {{see also|Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)}} Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] and [[essence]] (''ousia'') in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] (see also [[predicables]]) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1043a 10–30</ref> With regard to the change (''[[Potentiality and actuality|kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]] and [[On Generation and Corruption]] 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: # growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; # locomotion, which is change in space; and # alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[Dunamis|dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate&nbsp;– being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise&nbsp;– acting). Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. <blockquote> "For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see."<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' IX 1050a 5–10</ref> </blockquote> In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a [[final cause]] or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this [[definition]] of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1045a–b</ref> ====Universals and particulars==== {{main|Aristotle's theory of universals}} Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. [[Bertrand Russell]] is a 20th-century philosopher who agreed with Plato on the existence of "uninstantiated universals". Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. ===Biology and medicine=== In Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded. ====Empirical research program==== [[File:Octopus3.jpg|thumb|Octopus swimming]] [[File:Torpedo fuscomaculata2.jpg|thumb|''Torpedo fuscomaculata'']] [[File:Triakis semifasciata.jpg|thumb|Leopard shark]] Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of [[Lesbos]], and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'', contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on [[catfish]], [[Electric ray|electric fish]] (''[[Torpedo (genus)|Torpedo]]'') and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on [[cephalopod]]s, namely, ''Octopus'', ''Sepia'' ([[cuttlefish]]) and the paper nautilus (''[[Argonauta argo]]''). His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]], used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē ([[selachians]]).<ref name="Singer, Charles 1931">Singer, Charles. ''A short history of biology''. Oxford 1931.</ref> Another good example of his methods comes from the ''Generation of Animals'' in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated. He gave accurate descriptions of [[ruminant]]s' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]] ''[[Mustelus mustelus]]''.<ref>Emily Kearns, "Animals, knowledge about," in ''[[Oxford Classical Dictionary]]'', 3rd ed., 1996, p. 92.</ref> ====Classification of living things==== Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of [[hemoglobin]], but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of [[Linnaeus]], who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms). For [[Charles Singer]], "Nothing is more remarkable than [Aristotle's] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a ''scala naturae''"<ref name="Singer, Charles 1931"/> Aristotle's ''History of Animals'' classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical "[[Great chain of being|Ladder of Life]]" (''scala naturae'' or [[Great Chain of Being]]), placing them according to complexity of structure and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move.<ref>Aristotle, of course, is not responsible for the later use made of this idea by clerics.</ref> Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., [[final cause]]s, guided all natural processes. Such a [[teleological]] view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that "no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns," and "a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen," Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 43–44</ref> In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man, the ''scala naturae''.<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 201–202; see also: Lovejoy, ''The Great Chain of Being''</ref> His system had eleven grades, arranged according "to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs. Aristotle also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as science at all in modern times. He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.<ref>Aristotle, ''De Anima'' II 3</ref> Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 45</ref> Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].<ref>Guthrie, ''A History of Greek Philosophy'' Vol. 1 pp. 348</ref> ====Successor: Theophrastus==== [[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Book frontispiece|frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of ''[[Historia Plantarum]]'' (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 200 BC.]] {{main|Theophrastus|Historia Plantarum}} Aristotle's successor at the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]], [[Theophrastus]], wrote a series of books on botany—the ''History of Plants''—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the [[Middle Ages]]. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as ''carpos'' for fruit, and ''pericarpion'' for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the [[efficient cause]]. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 90–91; Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'', p 46</ref> ====Influence on Hellenistic medicine==== {{details|Medicine in ancient Greece}} After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.<ref>Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'' pp 252</ref> It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 56</ref> Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 90–94; quotation from p 91</ref> Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.<ref>Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'', p 252</ref> ===Psychology=== Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise [[On the Soul]] (''peri psyche'', often known by its [[Latin]] title ''De Anima''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the same powers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and compare them. For Aristotle, the soul (''psyche'') was a simpler concept than it is for us today. By soul he simply meant the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).<ref>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ "Psychology"].</ref> ===Practical philosophy=== ====Ethics==== {{main|Aristotelian ethics}} Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (normally translated as ''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[aretē]]''), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).<ref>[[Nicomachean Ethics]] Book I. See for example chapter 7 [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1098a 1098a].</ref> Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished [[theory|theoretical]] or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.<ref>[[Nicomachean Ethics]] Book VI.</ref> ====Politics==== {{main|Politics (Aristotle)}} {{quote | ''Like Aristotle, conservatives generally accept the world as it is; they distrust the politics of abstract reason{{spaced ndash}}that is, reason divorced from experience.'' | Benjamin Wiker<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wnd.com/2010/08/191121 |title=Aristotle: Father of political conservatism |publisher=Wnd.com |date=14 August 2010 |accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> }} In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".<ref>Politics 1253a19–24</ref> He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal". Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an [[organism]] rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.<ref>{{cite book | last =Ebenstein | first =Alan | coauthors =William Ebenstein | title =Introduction to Political Thinkers | publisher =Wadsworth Group | year =2002 | page =59}}</ref> The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (''koinōnia'')<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."<ref>For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, K. (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115</ref> ====Rhetoric and poetics==== {{main|Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Poetics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]] and music to be [[Mimesis|imitative]], each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' I 1447a</ref> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' III</ref> Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' IV</ref> While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' VI</ref> The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic [[mimesis]]. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' XXVI</ref> Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].<ref>Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_0 The Complete Fables By Aesop] Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0-14-044649-4 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii.</ref> ===Views on women=== {{main|Aristotle's views on women}} Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, feminists have accused Aristotle of [[misogyny]]<ref name="Freeland">{{cite book | title=Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle | publisher=Penn State University Press | author=Freeland, Cynthia A. | year=1998 | isbn=0-271-01730-9}}</ref> and [[sexism]].<ref name="Morsink">{{cite journal | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/4330727 | title=Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist? | author=Morsink, Johannes | journal=Journal of the History of Biology |date=Spring 1979 | volume=12 | issue=1 | pages=83–112}}</ref> However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that a society cannot be happy unless women are happy too. ==Loss and preservation of his works== {{see also|Corpus Aristotelicum}} Modern scholarship reveals that Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization<ref name="Cornell">Terence Irwin and Gail Fine, [[Cornell University]], ''Aristotle: Introductory Readings.'' Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. (1996), Introduction, pp. xi–xii.</ref> from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with an intent for subsequent publication, the surviving works do not appear to have been so.<ref name="Cornell" /> Rather the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes unintended for publication.<ref name="Cornell" /> The authenticity of a portion of the surviving works as originally Aristotelian is also today held suspect, with some books duplicating or summarizing each other, the authorship of one book questioned and another book considered to be unlikely Aristotle's at all.<ref name="Cornell" /> Some of the individual works within the corpus, including the ''[[Constitution of Athens]],'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school," perhaps compiled under his direction or supervision. Others, such as ''On Colors,'' may have been produced by Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., [[Theophrastus]] and [[Strato of Lampsacus|Straton]]. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]. Other works in the corpus include medieval palmistries and [[astrological]] and [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] texts whose connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful and self-promotional.<ref>Lynn Thorndike, "Chiromancy in Medieval Latin Manuscripts," ''Speculum'' 40 (1965), pp. 674–706; Roger A. Pack, "Pseudo-Arisoteles: Chiromantia," ''Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge'' 39 (1972), pp. 289–320; Pack, "A Pseudo-Aristotelian Chiromancy," ''Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge'' 36 (1969), pp. 189–241.</ref> According to a distinction that originates with Aristotle himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the "[[exoteric]]" and the "[[esoteric]]".<ref>[[Jonathan Barnes]], "Life and Work" in ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle'' (1995), p. 12; Aristotle himself: ''Nicomachean Ethics'' 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of ''exōterikoi logoi'', see [[W. D. Ross]], ''Aristotle's Metaphysics'' (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the [[Peripatetic school]]", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.</ref> Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works Aristotle intended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works intended for use within the school (esoteric). Modern scholars commonly assume these latter to be Aristotle's own (unpolished) lecture notes (or in some cases possible notes by his students).<ref name="Barnes, Life and Work, p. 12">Barnes, "Life and Work", p. 12.</ref> However, one classic scholar offers an alternative interpretation. The 5th century [[neoplatonist]] [[Ammonius Hermiae]] writes that Aristotle's writing style is deliberately [[Obscurantism|obscurantist]] so that "good people may for that reason stretch their mind even more, whereas empty minds that are lost through carelessness will be put to flight by the obscurity when they encounter sentences like these."<ref>{{cite book | author= Ammonius | year= 1991 | title= On Aristotle's Categories | location= Ithaca, NY | publisher= Cornell University Press | isbn= 0-8014-2688-X }} p. 15</ref> Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant – that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (''Fragments'' of some of Aristotle's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that [[Cicero]] refers when he characterized Aristotle's writing style as "a river of gold";<ref>{{cite web | last =Cicero | first =Marcus Tullius | title =flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles | work =Academica | date =106 BC – 43 BC | url =http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/4/9/7/14970/14970-h/14970-h.htm#BkII_119 | accessdate =25 January 2007}}</ref> it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us.<ref name="Barnes, Life and Work, p. 12"/> However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant works.<ref>Barnes, "Roman Aristotle", in Gregory Nagy, ''Greek Literature'', Routledge 2001, vol. 8, p. 174 n. 240.</ref> One major question in the history of Aristotle's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us<ref>.The definitive, English study of these questions is Barnes, "Roman Aristotle".</ref> The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by [[Strabo]] in his ''Geography'' and [[Plutarch]] in his ''[[Parallel Lives]]''.<ref>"Sulla."</ref> The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them to [[Neleus of Scepsis]]. Neleus supposedly took the writings from Athens to [[Scepsis]], where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the 1st century BC, when [[Apellicon of Teos]] discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian [[Tyrannion of Amisus]] and then by the philosopher [[Andronicus of Rhodes]].<ref>Ancient Rome: from the early Republic to the assassination of Julius Caesar – Page 513, Matthew Dillon, Lynda Garland</ref><ref>The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 22 – Page 131, Grolier Incorporated – Juvenile Nonfiction</ref> Carnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides "the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lord |first=Carnes |title=Introduction to the Politics, by Aristotle |publisher=[[Chicago University Press]] |year=1984 |location=Chicago |page=11 }}</ref> Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair. Second, there is "incontrovertible evidence," Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of Aristotle's texts seems to have been made in Athens some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelian corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelian interpolations in the ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', for example, but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact. On the one hand, the surviving texts of Aristotle do not derive from finished literary texts, but rather from working drafts used within Aristotle's school, as opposed, on the other hand, to the [[Corpus Aristotelicum#Fragments|dialogues and other "exoteric" texts]] which Aristotle published more widely during his lifetime. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.<ref>Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Works and Thoughts", ''A Companion to Aristotle'' (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), p. 16. See also, Barnes, J., "Life and Work", ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle'' (Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.&nbsp;10–15.</ref> == Legacy == [[File:Aristotle with a Bust of Homer.jpg|thumb|Aristotle with a bust of [[Homer]], by [[Rembrandt]].]] More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".<ref>{{cite book |last= Magee |first=Bryan |authorlink=Bryan Magee |title=The Story of Philosophy |year=2010 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |page= 34}}</ref> Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of [[formal logic]],<ref>W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC&pg=PA156&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter]''". [[Cambridge University Press]]. p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4</ref> pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle| archivedate= 22 April 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |authorlink=Will Durant |title=[[The Story of Philosophy]] |year=1926 (2006) |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=978-0-671-73916-4 |page= 92}}</ref> Despite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle's errors is considered by some to have held back science considerably. [[Bertrand Russell]] notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> ===Later Greek philosophers=== The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Meno]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and [[Theophrastus]]. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander''</ref> ===Influence on Byzantine scholars=== Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were [[John Philoponus]], Elias, and David in the sixth century, and [[Stephen of Alexandria]] in the early seventh century.<ref>Richard Sorabji, ed. ''Aristotle Transformed'' London, 1990, 20, 28, 35–36.</ref> [[John Philoponus]] stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.<ref>Richard Sorabji, ed. ''Aristotle Transformed'' (London, 1990) 233–274.</ref> After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappears in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].<ref>Richard Sorabji, ed. ''Aristotle Transformed'' (London, 1990) 20–21; 28–29, 393–406; 407–408.</ref> ===Influence on Islamic theologians=== Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early [[Islamic theology]]. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,<ref name="ReferenceA">''Encyclopedia of Islam'', ''Aristutalis''</ref> as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by [[Muslim]] philosophers, scientists and scholars. [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Alpharabius]], who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. [[Alkindus]] considered Aristotle as the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy<ref>''Rasa'il'' I, 103, 17, Abu Rida</ref> and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.<ref>''Comm. Magnum'' in Aristotle'', ''De Anima'', III, 2, 43 Crawford</ref> Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".<ref>''al-mua'llim al-thani'', ''Aristutalis''</ref> The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia|year=1996|publisher=Curzon Press|isbn=0-7007-0314-4|pages=59–60}}</ref> In accordance with the [[Greeks|Greek]] theorists, the Muslims considered Aristotle to be a dogmatic philosopher, the author of a closed system, and believed that Aristotle shared with [[Plato]] essential tenets of thought. Some went so far as to credit Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysical ideas.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ===Influence on Western Christian theologians=== With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. CE 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]],<ref>{{SEP|arabic-islamic-influence|Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West}}</ref> and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]] and [[William of Moerbeke]]. After [[Thomas Aquinas]] wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]].<ref>{{SEP|aristotelianism-renaissance|Aristotelianism in the Renaissance}}</ref> Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] thinkers such as [[Thomas Aquinas]]. See ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having :&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'' at his beddes heed'' :''Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,'' :''Of aristotle and his philosophie,''<ref>Geoffrey Chaucer, ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', Prologue, lines 295–295</ref> The Italian poet [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] says of Aristotle in [[The Divine Comedy|the first circles of hell]], :''I saw the Master there of those who know,'' :''Amid the philosophic family,'' :''By all admired, and by all reverenced;'' :''There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,'' :''Who stood beside him closer than the rest.''<ref>''vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno'' ''seder tra filosofica famiglia.''<br> ''Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno'':<br> ''quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone''<br> ''che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;''<br> Dante, ''L'Inferno'' (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131–135</ref> ===Post-Enlightenment thinkers=== The German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.<ref>Durant, p. 86</ref> However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that Aristotle's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue – or ''arete'' – of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. [[Ayn Rand]] accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.<ref>Kelvin Knight, ''Aristotelian Philosophy'', Polity Press, 2007, ''passim''.</ref> == List of works == {{main|Corpus Aristotelicum}} The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. == Eponym == [[File:Aristotle - Jefferson Building - Library of Congress.jpg|thumb|"ARISTOTLE" near the ceiling of the Great Hall in the [[Library of Congress]].]] The [[Aristotle Mountains]] along the [[Oscar II Coast]] of [[Graham Land]], [[Antarctica]], are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and call it "Antarctica".<ref>[https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=137410 Aristotle Mountains.] [[SCAR]] [[Composite Antarctic Gazetteer]].</ref> == See also == *[[Aristotelian physics]] *[[Aristotelian view of God]] *[[Conimbricenses]] *[[Corpus Aristotelicum]] *[[Hylomorphism]] *[[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]] *[[Otium]] *[[Philia]] == Notes and references == {{reflist|<!--Too narrow: 20em-->30em}} == Further reading == The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection. {{Library resources box|by=yes||onlinebooks=yes|viaf=7524651}} {{refbegin|30em}} *[[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill J. L.]] (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA. *{{cite book|last=Ackrill|first=J. L.|title=Aristotle the Philosopher|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981}} *{{Cite book|last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. | authorlink = Mortimer Adler |title=[[Aristotle for Everybody]] |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |year=1978}} A popular exposition for the general reader. * {{cite book|last= Ammonius |editor1-last=Cohen|editor1-first=S. Marc|editor2-last=Matthews|editor2-first=Gareth B|title= On Aristotle's Categories|location= Ithaca, NY|publisher= Cornell University Press|year= 1991|isbn= 0-8014-2688-X}} *{{cite book|last=Aristotle|title=The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W. D. Ross, 12 vols|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|year=1908–1952}} These translations are available in several places online; see External links. *Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 *Barnes J. (1995). The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press. *{{Cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |year=1951}} *Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. *[[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, M. F.]] ''et al.'' (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. *{{cite book|editor1-last=Cantor|editor1-first=Norman F.|editor2-first=Peter L.|editor2-last=Klein|title=Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle|volume=1|series=Monuments of Western Thought|location=Waltham, Mass|publisher=Blaisdell Publishing Co.|year=1969}} *Chappell, V. (1973). Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679–696. *Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. *{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=John|title=Aristotle|location=New York|publisher=Twayne Publishers|year=1972}} *Frede, Michael. (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. *{{cite book|last=Fuller|first=B.A.G.|authorlink=Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller|series=History of Greek Philosophy|volume=3 |title=Aristotle|location=London|publisher=Cape|year=1923}} *[[Eugene Gendlin|Gendlin, Eugene T.]] (2012). ''Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York: The Focusing Institute. [http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Available online in PDF.] *Gill, Mary Louise. (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. *{{Cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1981}} *Halper, Edward C. (2007). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta'', Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6. *Halper, Edward C. (2005). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books'', Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6. *[[Terence Irwin|Irwin, T. H.]] (1988). [http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf Aristotle's First Principles]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-824290-5. *{{cite book|last=Jaeger|first=Werner|title=Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development|editor-first=Richard|editor-last=Robinson|edition=2nd|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1948}} * [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]]. (2003). ''Aristotele'', Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "[[International Academy of the History of Science]]") ISBN 88-424-9737-1. *{{cite book|editor-last=Kiernan|editor-first=Thomas P.|title=Aristotle Dictionary|location=New York|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1962}} *Knight, Kelvin. (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press. *Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. *[[G. E. R. Lloyd|Lloyd, G. E. R.]] (1968). ''Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought''. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., ISBN 0-521-09456-9. *Lord, Carnes. (1984). Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press. *Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. *{{cite book|last=McKeon|first=Richard|title=Introduction to Aristotle|edition=2d|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1973}} *{{cite journal|last=Owen|first=G. E. L. |year=1965c |title=The Platonism of Aristotle|journal=Proceedings of the British Academy|volume=50|pages=125–150}} [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] *Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). ''Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship. *{{cite book|last=Plato|title=The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle|editor1-first=Harold Joseph|editor1-last=Allen|editor2-first=James B|editor2-last=Wilbur|location=Buffalo|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=1979}} *Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett. * {{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. | title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher |location=Springfield |year=1968}} * {{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David | authorlink = W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge | edition = 6th |location=London |year=1995}} A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923. *Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. *Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's ''Politics''", in ''The City and Man'', Chicago; Rand McNally. * {{Cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |year=1992}} * {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Henry Osborn |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211201625/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html |archivedate=11 February 2006 |title=Greek Biology and Medicine |year=1922 |chapter=Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology | chapterurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html}} * {{Cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. | authorlink = Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |publisher=Indiana U. Press |location=Bloomington |year=1974}} For the general reader. *{{cite book|last=Woods|first=M. J.|year=1991b|chapter=Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics|series=[[Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy]]|title=Aristotle and the Later Tradition|volume=Suppl|pages=41–56}} {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links|Aristotle|b=no|n=no|s=Author:Aristotle}} {{Wikisourcelang|el|Αριστοτέλης}} * {{PhilPapers|category|aristotle}}. * {{InPho|thinker|2553}}. * At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] |[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}} * From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle Aristotle (general article)] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology] |[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm General article at The Catholic Encyclopedia] * {{ws|[[Diogenes Laërtius]], ''[[s:Lives of the Eminent Philosophers/Book V#Aristotle|Life of Aristotle]]'', translated by [[Robert Drew Hicks]] (1925)}} * {{OL author|OL22105A}}. * [http://www.concharto.org/search/eventsearch.htm?_tag=timeline%20of%20aristotle&_maptype=0 Timeline of Aristotle's life] * {{PlanetMath|urlname=Aristotle|title=Aristotle}}. * {{Worldcat id|lccn-n79-4182}}. '''Collections of works''' * At the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] (primarily in English). *{{en icon}} [http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/a#a2747 Project Gutenberg]. *{{en icon}} {{gr icon}} [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]]. * At the [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] (primarily in English). *{{gr icon}} {{fr icon}} [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle] * The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]{{dot}}[http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU]) * Bekker's Prussian Academy of Sciences edition of the complete works of Aristotle at Archive.org: {{hlist |[http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera01arisrich {{vol.|1}}] |[http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera02arisrich {{vol.|2}}] |[http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera03arisrich {{vol.|3}}] |[http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera04arisrich {{vol.|4}}] |[http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera05arisrich {{vol.|5}}]}} *{{en icon}} [http://demonax.info/doku.php?id=classical:aristotle Aristotle Collection] (translation). {{Peripatetics}} {{Philosophy topics}} {{Logic}} {{Metaphysics}} {{Ethics}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Philosophy of language}} {{Ancient Greece topics}} {{Authority control|VIAF=7524651|PND=118650130|LCCN=n/79/4182}} {{Persondata |NAME = Aristotle |ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Ἀριστοτέλης (Greek) |SHORT DESCRIPTION = [[Greek philosophy|Greek]] philosopher |DATE OF BIRTH = 384 BC |PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Stagira (ancient city)]] |DATE OF DEATH = 322 BC |PLACE OF DEATH = [[Chalcis]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Aristotle}} [[Category:Aristotle| ]] <!--Alphanumerical:--> [[Category:384 BC births]] [[Category:322 BC deaths]] [[Category:4th-century BC philosophers]] [[Category:4th-century BC writers]] [[Category:Academic philosophers]] [[Category:Acting theorists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]] [[Category:Ancient Greeks in Macedon]] [[Category:Ancient Stagirites]] [[Category:Attic Greek writers]] [[Category:Cosmologists]] [[Category:Defenders of slavery]] [[Category:Empiricists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek biologists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek logicians]] [[Category:History of logic]] [[Category:Humor researchers]] [[Category:Metaphysicians]] [[Category:Meteorologists]] [[Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens]] [[Category:Natural philosophers]] [[Category:Peripatetic philosophers]] [[Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great]] [[Category:Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice]] [[Category:Philosophers of language]] [[Category:Philosophers of law]] [[Category:Philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Political philosophers]] [[Category:Rhetoric theorists]] [[Category:Trope theorists]] [[Category:Ancient literary critics]] [[Category:Virtue ethicists]] {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|fi}} {{Link FA|hu}} {{Link GA|is}} edv41o3dkvv0gyc95lta4qpjp2tk6u0 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 309 576507235 573927473 2013-10-09T22:21:47Z ChrisGualtieri 16333418 General Fixes and Linking fixes using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] {{About|the 1928 George Gershwin music|the 1951 musical starring Gene Kelly|An American in Paris (film)|Christopher Wheeldon's 2005 ballet|An American in Paris (ballet)}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:George Gershwin An American in Paris.png|thumb|A theme from George Gershwin's orchestral composition ''An American in Paris'']] '''''An American in Paris''''' is a [[symphony|symphonic]] [[tone poem]] by the American composer [[George Gershwin]], written in 1928. Inspired by the time Gershwin had spent in Paris, it evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s and is one of his best-known compositions. Gershwin composed ''An American in Paris'' on commission from the [[New York Philharmonic]]. He scored the piece for the standard instruments of the [[symphony orchestra]] plus [[celesta]], [[saxophone]]s, and automobile horns. He brought back some Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December&nbsp;13, 1928 in [[Carnegie Hall]], with [[Walter Damrosch]] conducting the [[New York Symphony]]. Gershwin completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.kennedy-center.org/calendar/?fuseaction=composition&composition_id=2983 | title = An American in Paris: About the Work | publisher = [[The Kennedy Center]] | author = Richard Freed | accessdate = 5 December 2012 }}</ref> Gershwin collaborated on the original program notes with the critic and composer [[Deems Taylor]], noting that: "My purpose here is to portray the impression of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city and listens to various street noises and absorbs the French atmosphere." When the tone poem moves into the [[blues]], "our American friend ... has succumbed to a spasm of homesickness." But, "nostalgia is not a fatal disease." The American visitor "once again is an alert spectator of Parisian life" and "the street noises and French atmosphere are triumphant." ==Background== [[Maurice Ravel]] met Gershwin in New York during Ravel's tour of the United States. In that meeting, Gershwin asked Ravel to be his teacher, to which Ravel responded that it was better to be a first-rate Gershwin than a second-rate Ravel. Instead, Ravel recommended that Gershwin see [[Nadia Boulanger]] in Paris. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking time to study abroad in Paris. Gershwin arrived in Paris in March 1928. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers: among them [[Ezra Pound]], [[W. B. Yeats]], [[Ernest Hemingway]]; and artist [[Pablo Picasso]]. Gershwin met with Boulanger and at her request he played ten minutes of his music. Boulanger replied that she had nothing to teach him. This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''. ==Composition== Gershwin based ''An American in Paris'' on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. He described the piece as a "rhapsodic ballet" because it was written freely and is more modern than his previous works. Gershwin explained in ''[[Musical America]]'', "My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere." The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose [[Ternary form|ABA format]]. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Les Six]]. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American [[Blues]] and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster [[twelve-bar blues]]. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. "Moderato con grazia" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the "walking" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final “Grandioso.” ==Instrumentation== ''An American in Paris'' is scored for 3 [[flute]]s (3rd doubling on [[piccolo]]), 2 [[oboe]]s, [[English horn]], 2 [[clarinet]]s in B flat, [[bass clarinet]] in B flat, 2 [[bassoon]]s, 4 [[Horn (instrument)|horn]]s in F, 3 trumpets in B flat, 3 [[trombone]]s, [[tuba]], [[timpani]], [[snare drum]], [[bass drum]], triangle, wood block, [[cymbal]]s, low and high [[Tom-tom drum|tom-tom]]s, [[xylophone]], [[glockenspiel]], [[celesta]], 4 [[vehicle horn|taxi horns]] labeled as A, B, C and D, [[alto saxophone]]/[[soprano saxophone]], [[tenor saxophone]]/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, [[baritone saxophone]]/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, and [[String section|strings]]. The revised edition by F. Campbell-Watson calls for three saxophones, alto, tenor and baritone. In this arrangement the soprano and alto doublings have been rewritten to avoid changing instruments. [[William Merrigan Daly|William Daly]] arranged the score for piano solo which was published by New World Music in 1929. ==Response== Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of ''An American in Paris''. He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses." Critics believed that ''An American in Paris'' was better crafted than his lukewarm [[Concerto in F (Gershwin)|Concerto in F]]. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers [[César Franck]], [[Richard Wagner]], or [[Guillaume Lekeu]] on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics, "It's not a Beethoven Symphony, you know… It's a humorous piece, nothing solemn about it. It's not intended to draw tears. If it pleases symphony audiences as a light, jolly piece, a series of impressions musically expressed, it succeeds." ==Recordings== [[File:American in Paris.tif|thumb|First recording]] ''An American in Paris'' has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for [[RCA Victor]] in 1929 with [[Nathaniel Shilkret]] conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief [[celesta]] solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. The radio broadcast of the September&nbsp;8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which ''An American in Paris,'' also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. [[Arthur Fiedler]] and the [[Boston Pops Orchestra]] recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, [[Arturo Toscanini]] and the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]] recorded the music in [[Carnegie Hall]], one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in the 1980s of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today. ==Use in film== In 1951, MGM released the musical ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'', featuring [[Gene Kelly]] and [[Leslie Caron]]. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by [[Vincente Minnelli]], featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the ''An American in Paris'' symphonic poem (arranged for the film by [[Johnny Green]]), costing $500,000. A part of the symphonic composition is also featured in ''[[As Good as It Gets]]'', released in 1997. ==References== {{reflist}} * Rimler, Walter. ''George Gershwin : an intimate portrait''. Urbana : University of Illinois Press, 2009. 29-33. Print. * Pollack, Howard. ''George Gershwin : his life and work''. Berkeley : University of California Press, 2006. 431-42. Print. ==External links== * [http://www.archive.org/details/AnAmericanInParis 1944 recording] by The [[New York Philharmonic]] conducted by [[Artur Rodzinsky]]. {{DEFAULTSORT:American In Paris, An}} [[Category:Compositions by George Gershwin]] [[Category:Symphonic poems]] [[Category:Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients]] [[Category:1928 compositions]] [[Category:Music about Paris]] d3ckbae59k6jhggeo0gv3x6zih343c3 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 316 600880805 600784182 2014-03-23T14:34:51Z GregorB 179697 WL {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox award | name = [[Academy Award]] for Best Production Design | presenter = [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] | country = United States | holder = [[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]]<br />[[Beverley Dunn]]<br />''[[The Great Gatsby (2013 film)|The Great Gatsby]]'' ([[86th Academy Awards|2013]]) | website = http://www.oscars.org }} The [[Academy Award]]s are the oldest awards ceremony for achievements in motion pictures. The '''Academy Award for Best Production Design''' recognizes achievement in [[art director#Film|art direction]] on a film. The category's original name was '''Best Art Direction''', but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards.<ref name="Music Rules">{{Cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2012/20120830.html |title=Music Rules Approved for 85th Academy Awards |accessdate=2012-08-31 |work=oscars.org}}</ref> This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|Academy]] being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the Set Decorator(s). The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees. == Superlatives == {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !width="150"|Category !width="150"|Name !width="150"|Superlative !width="350"|Notes |- |Most Awards |[[Cedric Gibbons]] |11 awards |Awards resulted from 39 nominations.<ref name="theoscarsite">{{cite web |url=http://theoscarsite.com/whoswho/gibbons_c.htm |title=Cedric Gibbons Biography |accessdate=2010-02-28 |work=theoscarsite.com}}</ref><ref name="findagrave">{{cite web |url=http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=5912059 |title=Find A Grave: Cedric Gibbons |accessdate=2010-02-28 |work=findagrave.com}}</ref> |- |Most Nominations |Cedric Gibbons |39 nominations |Nominations resulted in 11 awards. |- |Most Nominations<br />(without ever winning) |[[Roland Anderson]] |15 nominations |Nominations resulted in no awards. |} {{clear}} ==Best Interior Decoration== ===1920s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Interior Decorator ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=5 style="text-align:center" | [[1928 in film|1927/28]]<br />{{small|[[1st Academy Awards|(1st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | rowspan=2 | [[William Cameron Menzies]] | ''[[The Dove (1927 film)|The Dove]]'' |- |- style="background:#FAEB86" | ''[[Tempest (1928 film)|Tempest]]'' |- | [[Harry Oliver]] | ''[[Seventh Heaven (1927 film)|Seventh Heaven]]'' |- | [[Rochus Gliese]] | ''[[Sunrise (film)|Sunrise]]'' |- | rowspan=7 style="text-align:center" | [[1929 in film|1928/29]]<br />{{small|[[2nd Academy Awards|(2nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]] | ''[[The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1929 film)|The Bridge of San Luis Rey]]'' |- | [[Mitchell Leisen]] | ''[[Dynamite (film)|Dynamite]]'' |- | rowspan=2 | [[William Cameron Menzies]] | ''[[Alibi (1929 film)|Alibi]]'' |- | ''[[The Awakening (1928 film)|The Awakening]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]] | ''[[The Patriot (1928 film)|The Patriot]]'' |- | [[Harry Oliver]] | ''[[Street Angel (1928 film)|Street Angel]]'' |} ===1930s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Interior Decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1930 in film|1929/30]]<br />{{small|[[3rd Academy Awards|(3rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Herman Rosse]] | ''[[King of Jazz]]'' |- | [[William Cameron Menzies]] | ''[[Bulldog Drummond (1929 film)|Bulldog Drummond]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]] | ''[[The Love Parade]]'' |- | [[Jack Okey]] | ''[[Sally (1929 film)|Sally]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]] | ''[[The Vagabond King (1930 film)|The Vagabond King]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | [[1931 in film|1930/31]]<br />{{small|[[4th Academy Awards|(4th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Max Ree]] | ''[[Cimarron (1931 film)|Cimarron]]'' |- | [[Stephen Goosson]]<br>[[Ralph Hammeras]] | ''[[Just Imagine]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]] | ''[[Morocco (1930 film)|Morocco]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[Svengali (1931 film)|Svengali]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[Whoopee! (film)|Whoopee!]]'' |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | [[1932 in film|1931/32]]<br />{{small|[[5th Academy Awards|(5th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Gordon Wiles]] | ''[[Transatlantic (1931 film)|Transatlantic]]'' |- | [[Lazare Meerson]] | ''[[À nous la liberté]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[Arrowsmith (film)|Arrowsmith]]'' |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | [[1933 in film|1932/33]]<br />{{small|[[6th Academy Awards|(6th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William S. Darling]] | ''[[Cavalcade (1933 film)|Cavalcade]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | ''[[A Farewell to Arms (1932 film)|A Farewell to Arms]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]] | ''[[When Ladies Meet (1933 film)|When Ladies Meet]]'' |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | 1934<br />{{small|[[7th Academy Awards|(7th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Fredric Hope]] | ''[[The Merry Widow (1934 film)|The Merry Widow]]'' |- | [[Van Nest Polglase]]<br>[[Carroll Clark]] | ''[[The Gay Divorcee]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[The Affairs of Cellini]]'' |- | rowspan=4 style="text-align:center" | 1935<br />{{small|[[8th Academy Awards|(8th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[The Dark Angel (1935 film)|The Dark Angel]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | ''[[The Lives of a Bengal Lancer]]'' |- | [[Carroll Clark]]<br>[[Van Nest Polglase]] | ''[[Top Hat]]'' |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | 1936<br />{{small|[[9th Academy Awards|(9th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[Dodsworth (film)|Dodsworth]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[Anthony Adverse]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Eddie Imazu]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Great Ziegfeld]]'' |- | [[William S. Darling]] | ''[[Lloyd's of London (film)|Lloyd's of London]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Jack Otterson]] | ''[[The Magnificent Brute]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Frederic Hope]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]] | ''[[Winterset (film)|Winterset]]'' |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | 1937<br />{{small|[[10th Academy Awards|(10th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Stephen Goosson]] | ''[[Lost Horizon (1937 film)|Lost Horizon]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[William Horning]] | ''[[Conquest (1937 film)|Conquest]]'' |- | [[Carroll Clark]] | ''[[A Damsel in Distress (film)|A Damsel in Distress]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[Dead End (1937 film)|Dead End]]'' |- | [[Ward Ihnen]] | ''[[Every Day's a Holiday (1937 film)|Every Day's a Holiday]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[The Life of Emile Zola]]'' |- | [[John Victor MacKay]] | ''[[Manhattan Merry-Go-Round (film)|Manhattan Merry-Go-Round]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | ''[[The Prisoner of Zenda (1937 film)|The Prisoner of Zenda]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | ''[[Souls at Sea]]'' |- | [[Alexander Toluboff]] | ''[[Vogues of 1938]]'' |- | [[William S. Darling]]<br>[[David S. Hall (art director)|David S. Hall]] | ''[[Wee Willie Winkie (film)|Wee Willie Winkie]]'' |- | [[Jack Otterson]] | ''[[You're a Sweetheart]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1938<br />{{small|[[11th Academy Awards|(11th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Carl J. Weyl]] | ''[[The Adventures of Robin Hood (film)|The Adventures of Robin Hood]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938 film)|The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' |- | [[Bernard Herzbrun]]<br>[[Boris Leven]] | ''[[Alexander's Ragtime Band (film)|Alexander's Ragtime Band]]'' |- | [[Alexander Toluboff]] | ''[[Algiers (film)|Algiers]]'' |- | [[Van Nest Polglase]] | ''[[Carefree (film)|Carefree]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | ''[[The Goldwyn Follies]]'' |- | [[Stephen Goosson]]<br>[[Lionel Banks]] | ''[[Holiday (1938 film)|Holiday]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[John B. Goodman]] | ''[[If I Were King]]'' |- | [[Jack Otterson]] | ''[[Mad About Music]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]] | ''[[Marie Antoinette (1938 film)|Marie Antoinette]]'' |- | [[Charles D. Hall]] | ''[[Merrily We Live]]'' |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | 1939<br />{{small|[[12th Academy Awards|(12th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Robert Odell]] | ''[[Beau Geste (1939 film)|Beau Geste]]'' |- | [[Charles D. Hall]] | ''[[Captain Fury]]'' |- | [[Jack Otterson]]<br>[[Martin Obzina]] | ''[[First Love (1939 film)|First Love]]'' |- | [[Van Nest Polglase]]<br>[[Alfred Herman]] | ''[[Love Affair (1939 film)|Love Affair]]'' |- | [[John Victor Mackay]] | ''[[Man of Conquest]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]] | ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex]]'' |- | [[William S. Darling]]<br>[[George Dudley (art director)|George Dudley]] | ''[[The Rains Came]]'' |- | [[Alexander Toluboff]] | ''[[Stagecoach (1939 film)|Stagecoach]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[William A. Horning]] | ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' |- | [[James Basevi]] | ''[[Wuthering Heights (1939 film)|Wuthering Heights]]'' |} ===1940s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Interior Decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=20 style="text-align:center" | 1940<br />{{small|[[13th Academy Awards|(13th)]]}}<ref>From 1940, the award was split into Black-and-white and color.</ref> | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Robert Usher]] | ''[[Arise, My Love]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[Robert Peterson (art director)|Robert Peterson]] | ''[[Arizona (1940 film)|Arizona]]'' |- | [[John Otterson]] | ''[[The Boys from Syracuse (film)|The Boys from Syracuse]]'' |- | [[John Victor Mackay]] | ''[[Dark Command]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]] | ''[[Foreign Correspondent (film)|Foreign Correspondent]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]] | ''[[Lillian Russell (film)|Lillian Russell]]'' |- | [[Van Nest Polglase]]<br>[[Mark-Lee Kirk]] | ''[[My Favorite Wife]]'' |- | [[John DuCasse Schulze]] | ''[[My Son, My Son (film)|My Son, My Son]]'' |- | [[Lewis J. Rachmil]] | ''[[Our Town (1940 film)|Our Town]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | ''[[Rebecca (1940 film)|Rebecca]]'' |- | [[Anton Grot]] | ''[[The Sea Hawk (1940 film)|The Sea Hawk]]'' |- | N/A (nomination withdrawn) | ''[[Sis Hopkins (1941 film)|Sis Hopkins]]'' |- | [[James Basevi]] | ''[[The Westerner (film)|The Westerner]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Vincent Korda]] | ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)|The Thief of Bagdad]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[John S. Detlie]] | ''[[Bitter Sweet (1940 film)|Bitter Sweet]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]] | ''[[Down Argentine Way]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | ''[[Northwest Mounted Police (film)|North West Mounted Police]]'' |- | rowspan=16 style="text-align:center" | 1941<br />{{small|[[14th Academy Awards|(14th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Nathan H. Juran]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[How Green Was My Valley (film)|How Green Was My Valley]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]]<br>[[Van Nest Polglase]]<br>[[Al Fields]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]] | ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' |- | [[Martin Obzina]]<br>[[Jack Otterson]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]] | ''[[The Flame of New Orleans]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Robert Usher]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]] | ''[[Hold Back the Dawn]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[George Montgomery (set decorator)|George Montgomery]] | ''[[Ladies in Retirement]]'' |- | [[Stephen Goosson]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[The Little Foxes (film)|The Little Foxes]]'' |- | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]]<br>[[Fred M. MacLean]] | ''[[Sergeant York (film)|Sergeant York]]'' |- | [[John DuCasse Schultze]]<br>[[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[Son of Monte Cristo]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Richard Irvine]] | ''[[Sundown (1941 film)|Sundown]]'' |- | [[Vincent Korda]]<br>[[Julia Heron]] | ''[[That Hamilton Woman]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Randall Duell]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[When Ladies Meet (1941 film)|When Ladies Meet]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Blossoms in the Dust]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Blood and Sand (1941 film)|Blood and Sand]]'' |- | [[Raoul Pene Du Bois]]<br>[[Stephen A. Seymour]] | ''[[Louisiana Purchase (film)|Louisiana Purchase]]'' |- | rowspan=17 style="text-align:center" | 1942<br />{{small|[[15th Academy Awards|(15th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph Wright (art director)|Joseph Wright]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[This Above All (film)|This Above All]]'' |- | [[Max Parker]]<br>[[Mark-Lee Kirk]]<br>[[Casey Roberts]] | ''[[George Washington Slept Here]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Al Fields]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]] | ''[[The Magnificent Ambersons (film)|The Magnificent Ambersons]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[The Pride of the Yankees]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Randall Duell]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Jack D. Moore|Jack Moore]] | ''[[Random Harvest (film)|Random Harvest]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | ''[[The Shanghai Gesture]]'' |- | [[Ralph Berger]]<br>[[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[Silver Queen]]'' |- | [[John B. Goodman]]<br>[[Jack Otterson]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Edward Ray Robinson]] | ''[[The Spoilers (1942 film)|The Spoilers]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]] | ''[[Take a Letter, Darling]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[Rudolph Sternad]]<br>[[Fay Babcock]] | ''[[The Talk of the Town (1942 film)|The Talk of the Town]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Joseph Wright (art director)|Joseph Wright]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[My Gal Sal]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Jack Otterson]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Ira S. Webb]] | ''[[Arabian Nights (1942 film)|Arabian Nights]]'' |- | [[Ted Smith (art director)|Ted Smith]]<br>[[Casey Roberts]] | ''[[Captains of the Clouds]]'' |- | [[Vincent Korda]]<br>[[Julia Heron]] | ''[[Jungle Book (1942 film)|Jungle Book]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[George Sawley]] | ''[[Reap the Wild Wind]]'' |- | rowspan=13 style="text-align:center" | 1943<br />{{small|[[16th Academy Awards|(16th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[James Basevi]]<br>[[William S. Darling]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[The Song of Bernadette (film)|The Song of Bernadette]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Ernst Fegte]]<br>[[Bertram Granger]] | ''[[Five Graves to Cairo]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Carroll Clark]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]]<br>[[Harley Miller]] | ''[[Flight for Freedom]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'' |- | [[Carl Weyl]]<br>[[George J. Hopkins]] | ''[[Mission to Moscow]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[The North Star (1943 film)|The North Star]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[John B. Goodman]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Ira S. Webb]] | ''[[Phantom of the Opera (1943 film)|Phantom of the Opera]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Haldane Douglas]]<br>[[Bertram Granger]] | ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls (film)|For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' |- | [[James Basevi]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[The Gang's All Here (1943 film)|The Gang's All Here]]'' |- | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]]<br>[[George J. Hopkins]] | ''[[This Is the Army]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Daniel Cathcart]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Jacques Mersereau]] | ''[[Thousands Cheer]]'' |- | rowspan=18 style="text-align:center" | 1944<br />{{small|[[17th Academy Awards|(17th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[William Ferrari]]<br>[[Paul Huldschinsky]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Gaslight (1944 film)|Gaslight]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[Walter Holscher]]<br>[[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[Address Unknown (1944 film)|Address Unknown]]'' |- | [[John Hughes (art director)|John Hughes]]<br>[[Fred M. MacLean]] | ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1944 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]'' |- | [[Perry Ferguson]]<br>[[Julia Heron]] | ''[[Casanova Brown]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Laura (1944 film)|Laura]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Robert Usher]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]] | ''[[No Time for Love (1943 film)|No Time for Love]]'' |- | [[Mark-Lee Kirk]]<br>[[Victor A. Gangelin]] | ''[[Since You Went Away]]'' |- | N/A (nomination withdrawn) | ''[[Song of the Open Road]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Carroll Clark]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]]<br>[[Claude Carpenter]] | ''[[Step Lively (1944 film)|Step Lively]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Wiard Ihnen]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Wilson (film)|Wilson]]'' |- | [[John B. Goodman]]<br>[[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Ira S. Webb]] | ''[[The Climax]]'' |- | [[Lionel Banks]]<br>[[Cary Odell]]<br>[[Fay Babcock]] | ''[[Cover Girl (1944 film)|Cover Girl]]'' |- | [[Charles Novi]]<br>[[Jack McConaghy]] | ''[[The Desert Song (1943 film)|The Desert Song]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Daniel B. Cathcart]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Richard Pefferle]] | ''[[Kismet (1944 film)|Kismet]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Raoul Pene du Bois]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Lady in the Dark (film)|Lady in the Dark]]'' |- | [[Ernst Fegte]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[The Princess and the Pirate]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1945<br />{{small|[[18th Academy Awards|(18th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Wiard Ihnen]]<br>[[A. Roland Fields]] | ''[[Blood on the Sun]]'' |- | [[Albert S. D'Agostino]]<br>[[Jack Okey]]<br>[[Darrell Silvera]]<br>[[Claude Carpenter]] | ''[[Experiment Perilous]]'' |- | [[James Basevi]]<br>[[William S. Darling]]<br>[[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Frank E. Hughes]] | ''[[The Keys of the Kingdom (film)|The Keys of the Kingdom]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Love Letters (1945 film)|Love Letters]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[John Bonar]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945 film)|The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Ernst Fegte]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]] | ''[[Frenchman's Creek (film)|Frenchman's Creek]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Maurice Ransford]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Leave Her to Heaven]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Mildred Griffiths]] | ''[[National Velvet (film)|National Velvet]]'' |- | [[Ted Smith (art director)|Ted Smith]]<br>[[Jack McConaghy]] | ''[[San Antonio (film)|San Antonio]]'' |- | [[Stephen Goosson]]<br>[[Rudolph Sternad]]<br>[[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] | ''[[A Thousand and One Nights (film)|A Thousand and One Nights]]'' |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | 1946<br />{{small|[[19th Academy Awards|(19th)]]}} | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William S. Darling]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Frank E. Hughes]] | ''[[Anna and the King of Siam (film)|Anna and the King of Siam]]'' |- | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler]]<br>[[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Kitty (1945 film)|Kitty]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Nathan H. Juran]]<br>[[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[The Razor's Edge (1946 film)|The Razor's Edge]]'' |- | colspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Yearling (film)|The Yearling]]'' |- | [[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]] | ''[[Caesar and Cleopatra (1945 film)|Caesar and Cleopatra]]'' |- | [[Paul Sheriff]]<br>[[Carmen Dillon]] | ''[[Henry V (1944 film)|Henry V]]'' |} ==Best Art Direction &ndash; Set Decoration== ===1940s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art Director(s) ! width="19%" | Set Decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1947<br />{{small|[[20th Academy Awards|(20th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Wilfred Shingleton]] | [[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]] | ''[[Great Expectations (1946 film)|Great Expectations]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Maurice Ransford]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[The Foxes of Harrow]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alfred Junge]] | — | ''[[Black Narcissus]]'' |- | [[Robert M. Haas]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Life with Father (film)|Life with Father]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1948<br />{{small|[[21st Academy Awards|(21st)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Carmen Dillon]] | [[Roger K. Furse]] | ''[[Hamlet (1948 film)|Hamlet]]'' |- | [[Robert Haas (director)|Robert Haas]] | [[William O. Wallace]] | ''[[Johnny Belinda (1948 film)|Johnny Belinda]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Arthur Lawson (designer)|Arthur Lawson]] | [[Hein Heckroth]] | ''[[The Red Shoes (1948 film)|The Red Shoes]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | [[Edwin Casey Roberts]]<br>[[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[Joan of Arc (1948 film)|Joan of Arc]]'' |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | 1949<br />{{small|[[22nd Academy Awards|(22nd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Harry Horner]]<br>[[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]] | [[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[The Heiress]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[Come to the Stable]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Richard A. Pefferle]] | ''[[Madame Bovary (1949 film)|Madame Bovary]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Jack D. Moore]] | ''[[Little Women (1949 film)|Little Women]]'' |- | [[Edward Carrere]] | [[Lyle Reifsnider]] | ''[[Adventures of Don Juan]]'' |- | [[Jim Morahan]]<br>[[William Kellner]] | [[Michael Relph]] | ''[[Saraband for Dead Lovers]]'' |} ===1950s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art Director(s) ! width="19%" | Set Decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=8 style="text-align:center" | 1950<br />{{small|[[23rd Academy Awards|(23rd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Sunset Boulevard (film)|Sunset Boulevard]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George W. Davis]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler|Lyle R. Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Walter M. Scott]] | ''[[All About Eve]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[The Red Danube]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Hans Dreier]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Samson and Delilah (1949 film)|Samson and Delilah]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Richard A. Pefferle]] | ''[[Annie Get Your Gun (film)|Annie Get Your Gun]]'' |- | [[Ernst Fegte]] | [[George Sawley]] | ''[[Destination Moon (film)|Destination Moon]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1951<br />{{small|[[24th Academy Awards|(24th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 film)|A Streetcar Named Desire]]'' |- | [[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Fred J. Rode]] | ''[[Fourteen Hours]]'' |- | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[House on Telegraph Hill]]'' |- | [[Jean d'Eaubonne]] | — | ''[[La Ronde (1950 film)|La Ronde]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Edwin B. Wills]]<br>[[Jack D. Moore]] | ''[[Too Young to Kiss]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[E. Preston Ames]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[David and Bathsheba (film)|David and Bathsheba]]'' |- | [[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Thomas Little]]<br>[[Walter M. Scott]] | ''[[On the Riviera]]'' |- | [[Edward Carfagno]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[William A. Horning]] | [[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 film)|Quo Vadis]]'' |- | [[Hein Heckroth]] | — | ''[[The Tales of Hoffmann (film)|The Tales of Hoffmann]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1952<br />{{small|[[25th Academy Awards|(25th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Edward Carfagno]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]] | [[Keogh Gleason]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Bad and the Beautiful]]'' |- | [[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[Hal Pereira]] | [[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[Carrie (1952 film)|Carrie]]'' |- | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Walter M. Scott]] | ''[[My Cousin Rachel (film)|My Cousin Rachel]]'' |- | [[So Matsuyama]] | [[H. Motsumoto]] | ''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashōmon]]'' |- | [[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Claude Carpenter]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[Viva Zapata!]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Marcel Vertes]] | [[Paul Sheriff]] | ''[[Moulin Rouge (1952 film)|Moulin Rouge]]'' |- | [[Antoni Clavé|Clavé]]<br>[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | [[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Hans Christian Andersen (film)|Hans Christian Andersen]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Arthur Krams]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Merry Widow (1952 film)|The Merry Widow]]'' |- | [[Frank Hotaling]] | [[John McCarthy, Jr.]]<br>[[Charles S. Thompson]] | ''[[The Quiet Man]]'' |- | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Thomas Little]] | ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952 film)|The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1953<br />{{small|[[26th Academy Awards|(26th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Edward Carfagno]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]] | [[Hugh Hunt]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Julius Caesar (1953 film)|Julius Caesar]]'' |- | [[Paul Markwitz]]<br>[[Fritz Maurischat]] | — | ''[[Martin Luther (1953 film)|Martin Luther]]'' |- | [[Leland Fuller]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[The President's Lady]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | — | ''[[Roman Holiday (1953 film)|Roman Holiday]]'' |- | [[Maurice Ransford]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Stuart Reiss]] | ''[[Titanic (1953 film)|Titanic]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Walter M. Scott]] | ''[[The Robe (film)|The Robe]]'' |- | [[Alfred Junge]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]] | [[John Jarvis (set decorator)|John Jarvis]] | ''[[Knights of the Round Table (film)|Knights of the Round Table]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Arthur Krams]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Lili]]'' |- | [[E. Preston Ames]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]]<br>[[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Gabriel Scognamillo]] | [[Keogh Gleason]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]]<br>[[Jack D. Moore]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[The Story of Three Loves]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]] | [[Jack D. Moore]]<br>[[Edwin B. Willis]] | ''[[Young Bess]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1954<br />{{small|[[27th Academy Awards|(27th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]] | — | ''[[On the Waterfront]]'' |- | [[Roland Anderson]]<br>[[Hal Pereira]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Grace Gregory]] | ''[[The Country Girl (1954 film)|The Country Girl]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[Executive Suite]]'' |- | [[Max Ophüls]] | — | ''[[Le Plaisir]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Sabrina (1954 film)|Sabrina]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Meehan (art director)|John Meehan]] | [[Emile Kuri]] | ''[[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film)|20,000 Leagues Under the Sea]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[Brigadoon (film)|Brigadoon]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[Leland Fuller]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[Désirée (film)|Désirée]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Red Garters (film)|Red Garters]]'' |- | [[Malcolm Bert]]<br>[[Gene Allen]] | [[Irene Sharaff]]<br>[[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[A Star Is Born (1954 film)|A Star Is Born]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1955<br />{{small|[[28th Academy Awards|(28th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[The Rose Tattoo (film)|The Rose Tattoo]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Randall Duell]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Henry Grace]] | ''[[Blackboard Jungle]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Malcolm Brown (art director)|Malcolm Brown]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Hugh B. Hunt]] | ''[[I'll Cry Tomorrow]]'' |- | [[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] | ''[[The Man with the Golden Arm]]'' |- | [[Edward S. Haworth]]<br>[[Walter Simonds]] | [[Robert Priestley]] | ''[[Marty (film)|Marty]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William Flannery]] | [[Jo Mielziner]]<br>[[Robert Priestley]] | ''[[Picnic (1955 film)|Picnic]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[John DeCuir]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[Daddy Long Legs (1955 film)|Daddy Long Legs]]'' |- | [[Oliver Smith (designer)|Oliver Smith]]<br>[[Joseph C. Wright]] | [[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Guys and Dolls (film)|Guys and Dolls]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]]<br>[[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Jack Stubbs]] | ''[[Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing (film)|Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Joseph McMillan Johnson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1956<br />{{small|[[29th Academy Awards|(29th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Malcolm F. Brown]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[F. Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956 film)|Somebody Up There Likes Me]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[A. Earl Hedrick]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Frank R. McKelvy]] | ''[[The Proud and Profane]]'' |- | [[So Matsuyama]] | — | ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' |- | [[Ross Bellah]] | [[William R. Kiernan]]<br>[[Louis Diage]] | ''[[The Solid Gold Cadillac]]'' |- | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[Teenage Rebel]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[John DeCuir]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[The King and I (1956 film)|The King and I]]'' |- | [[James W. Sullivan]]<br>[[Ken Adam]] | [[Ross J. Dowd]] | ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days (1956 film)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Ralph S. Hurst]] | ''[[Giant (1956 film)|Giant]]'' |- | [[Cedric Gibbons]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[F. Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[Lust for Life (film)|Lust for Life]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler]]<br>[[Albert Nozaki]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1957<br />{{small|[[30th Academy Awards|(30th)]]}}<ref>From 1957, the two awards were combined.</ref> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Ted Haworth]] | [[Robert Priestley]] | ''[[Sayonara]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Funny Face]]'' |- | [[William A. Horning]]<br>[[Gene Allen]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Richard Pefferle]] | ''[[Les Girls]]'' |- | [[Walter Holscher]] | [[William Kiernan]]<br>[[Louis Diage]] | ''[[Pal Joey (film)|Pal Joey]]'' |- | [[William A. Horning]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]] | [[Edwin B. Willis]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Raintree County (film)|Raintree County]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1958<br />{{small|[[31st Academy Awards|(31st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous award]])}}<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[F. Keogh Gleason]] | ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]'' |- | [[Malcolm Bert]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Auntie Mame (film)|Auntie Mame]]'' |- | [[Cary Odell]] | [[Louis Diage]] | ''[[Bell, Book and Candle]]'' |- | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[John DeCuir]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]] | ''[[A Certain Smile (film)|A Certain Smile]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Henry Bumstead]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1959<br />{{small|[[32nd Academy Awards|(32nd)]]}}<ref>In 1959, the awards were again split in two.</ref> | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[Career (1959 film)|Career]]'' |- | [[Carl Anderson (art director)|Carl Anderson]] | [[William Kiernan]] | ''[[The Last Angry Man]]'' |- | [[Ted Haworth]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[Some Like It Hot]]'' |- | [[Oliver Messel]]<br>[[William Kellner]] | [[Scot Slimon]] | ''[[Suddenly, Last Summer (film)|Suddenly, Last Summer]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous award]])}}<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' |- | [[John De Cuir]] | [[Julia Heron]] | ''[[The Big Fisherman]]'' |- | [[Lyle R. Wheeler]]<br>[[Franz Bachelin]]<br>[[Herman A. Blumenthal]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959 film)|Journey to the Center of the Earth]]'' |- | [[William A. Horning]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}<br>[[Robert F. Boyle]]<br>[[Merrill Pye]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[North by Northwest]]'' |- | [[Richard H. Riedel]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Ruby R. Levitt]] | ''[[Pillow Talk (film)|Pillow Talk]]'' |} ===1960s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art Director(s) ! width="19%" | Set Decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1960<br />{{small|[[33rd Academy Awards|(33rd)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alexander Trauner]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[The Apartment]]'' |- | [[Joseph McMillan Johnson]]<br>[[Kenneth A. Reid]] | [[Ross Dowd]] | ''[[The Facts of Life (film)|The Facts of Life]]'' |- | [[Joseph Hurley (art director)|Joseph Hurley]]<br>[[Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George Milo]] | ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' |- | [[Tom Morahan]] | [[Lionel Couch]] | ''[[Sons and Lovers (1960 film)|Sons and Lovers]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[Visit to a Small Planet]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Harry Horner]] | [[Russell A. Gausman]]<br>[[Julia Heron]] | ''[[Spartacus (1960 film)|Spartacus]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Addison Hehr]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]]<br>[[Otto Siegel]] | ''[[Cimarron (1960 film)|Cimarron]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arrigo Breschi]] | ''[[It Started in Naples]]'' |- | [[Ted Haworth]] | [[William Kiernan]] | ''[[Pepe (film)|Pepe]]'' |- | [[Edward Carrere]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Sunrise at Campobello]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1961<br />{{small|[[34th Academy Awards|(34th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alexander Trauner]] | [[Gene Callahan (production designer)|Gene Callahan]] | ''[[The Hustler (film)|The Hustler]]'' |- | [[Carroll Clark]] | [[Emile Kuri]]<br>[[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[The Absent-Minded Professor]]'' |- | [[Fernando Carrere]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[The Children's Hour (1961 film)|The Children's Hour]]'' |- | [[Rudolf Sternad]] | [[George Milo]] | ''[[Judgment at Nuremberg]]'' |- | [[Piero Gherardi]] | — | ''[[La Dolce Vita]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Victor A. Gangelin]] | ''[[West Side Story (film)|West Side Story]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's (film)|Breakfast at Tiffany's]]'' |- | [[Veniero Colasanti]]<br>[[John Moore (designer)|John Moore]] | — | ''[[El Cid (film)|El Cid]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Joseph Wright (art director)|Joseph Wright]] | [[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Flower Drum Song (film)|Flower Drum Song]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[Summer and Smoke (film)|Summer and Smoke]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1962<br />{{small|[[35th Academy Awards|(35th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Henry Bumstead]] | [[Oliver Emert]] | ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird (film)|To Kill a Mockingbird]]'' |- | [[Joseph Wright (art director)|Joseph Wright]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Days of Wine and Roses (film)|Days of Wine and Roses]]'' |- | [[Ted Haworth]]<br>[[Léon Barsacq]]<br>[[Vincent Korda]] | [[Gabriel Bechir]] | ''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Dick Pefferle]] | ''[[Period of Adjustment (film)|Period of Adjustment]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Frank R. McKelvy]] | ''[[The Pigeon That Took Rome]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Box]]<br>[[John Stoll]] | [[Dario Simoni]] | ''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]'' |- | [[Paul Groesse]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[The Music Man (1962 film)|The Music Man]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[J. McMillan Johnson]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Mutiny on the Bounty (1962 film)|Mutiny on the Bounty]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George Milo]] | ''[[That Touch of Mink]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Dick Pefferle]] | ''[[The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1963<br />{{small|[[36th Academy Awards|(36th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Gene Callahan (motion picture art director)|Gene Callahan]] | — | ''[[America America]]'' |- | [[Piero Gherardi]] | — | ''[[8½]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Robert R. Benton]] | ''[[Hud (film)|Hud]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Grace Gregory]] | ''[[Love with the Proper Stranger]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Twilight of Honor]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Hilyard Brown]]<br>[[Herman Blumenthal]]<br>[[Elven Webb]]<br>[[Maurice Pelling]]<br>[[Boris Juraga]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Paul S. Fox]]<br>[[Ray Moyer]] | ''[[Cleopatra (1963 film)|Cleopatra]]'' |- | [[Lyle Wheeler]] | [[Gene Callahan (motion picture art director)|Gene Callahan]] | ''[[The Cardinal]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Roland Anderson]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[James W. Payne]] | ''[[Come Blow Your Horn (film)|Come Blow Your Horn]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[William Ferrari]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}}<br>[[Addison Hehr]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Don Greenwood Jr.]]<br>[[Jack Mills (art director)|Jack Mills]] | ''[[How the West Was Won (film)|How the West Was Won]]'' |- | [[Ralph Brinton]]<br>[[Ted Marshall]] | [[Jocelyn Herbert]]<br>[[Josie MacAvin]] | ''[[Tom Jones (1963 film)|Tom Jones]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1964<br />{{small|[[37th Academy Awards|(37th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Vassilis Fotopoulos]] | — | ''[[Zorba the Greek (film)|Zorba the Greek]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Hans Peters (art director)|Hans Peters]]<br>[[Elliot Scott]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Robert R. Benton]] | ''[[The Americanization of Emily]]'' |- | [[William Glasgow]] | [[Raphael Bretton]] | ''[[Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte]]'' |- | [[Stephen Grimes]] | — | ''[[The Night of the Iguana (film)|The Night of the Iguana]]'' |- | [[Cary Odell]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[Seven Days in May]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Gene Allen]]<br>[[Cecil Beaton]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[My Fair Lady (film)|My Fair Lady]]'' |- | [[John Bryan (art director)|John Bryan]]<br>[[Maurice Carter (film designer)|Maurice Carter]] | [[Patrick McLoughlin (set decorator)|Patrick McLoughlin]]<br>[[Robert Cartwright]] | ''[[Becket (1964 film)|Becket]]'' |- | [[Carroll Clark]]<br>[[William H. Tuntke]] | [[Emile Kuri]]<br>[[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[Mary Poppins (film)|Mary Poppins]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[The Unsinkable Molly Brown (film)|The Unsinkable Molly Brown]]'' |- | [[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Ted Haworth]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[What a Way to Go!]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1965<br />{{small|[[38th Academy Awards|(38th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Robert Clatworthy]] | [[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[Ship of Fools (film)|Ship of Fools]]'' |- | [[Robert Emmet Smith]] | [[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] | ''[[King Rat (1965 film)|King Rat]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Urie McCleary]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Charles S. Thompson]] | ''[[A Patch of Blue]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Jack Poplin]] | [[Robert R. Benton]]<br>[[Joseph Kish]] | ''[[The Slender Thread]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Ted Marshall]]<br>[[Josie MacAvin]] | ''[[The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (film)|The Spy Who Came in from the Cold]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Box]]<br>[[Terence Marsh]] | [[Dario Simoni]] | ''[[Doctor Zhivago (film)|Doctor Zhivago]]'' |- | [[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]] | [[Dario Simoni]] | ''[[The Agony and the Ecstasy (film)|The Agony and the Ecstasy]]'' |- | [[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[William Creber]]<br>[[David S. Hall (art director)|David S. Hall]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Ray Moyer]]<br>[[Fred M. MacLean]]<br>[[Norman Rockett]] | ''[[The Greatest Story Ever Told]]'' |- | [[Robert Clatworthy]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Inside Daisy Clover]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Ruby Levitt]] | ''[[The Sound of Music (film)|The Sound of Music]]'' |- | rowspan=12 style="text-align:center" | 1966<br />{{small|[[39th Academy Awards|(39th)]]}} | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Black-and-white |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[George James Hopkins]] | ''[[Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (film)|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]'' |- | [[Robert Luthardt]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]] | ''[[The Fortune Cookie]]'' |- | [[Luigi Scaccianoce]] | — | ''[[The Gospel According to St. Matthew (film)|The Gospel According to St. Matthew]]'' |- | [[Willy Holt]]<br>[[Marc Frederix]]<br>[[Pierre Guffroy]] | — | ''[[Is Paris Burning?]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Paul Groesse]] | [[Henry Grace]]<br>[[Hugh Hunt]] | ''[[Mister Buddwing]]'' |- | colspan=3 style="text-align:center; background:#91CFF6" | Color |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Dale Hennesy]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[Fantastic Voyage]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[George C. Webb]] | [[John McCarthy, Jr.]]<br>[[John Austin (art director)|John Austin]] | ''[[Gambit (1966 film)|Gambit]]'' |- | [[Piero Gherardi]] | — | ''[[Juliet of the Spirits]]'' |- | [[Hal Pereira]]<br>[[Arthur Lonergan]] | [[Robert R. Benton]]<br>[[James W. Payne]] | ''[[The Oscar (film)|The Oscar]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[John Sturtevant]]<br>[[William Kiernan]] | ''[[The Sand Pebbles (film)|The Sand Pebbles]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1967<br />{{small|[[40th Academy Awards|(40th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Truscott]]<br>[[Edward Carrere]] | [[John W. Brown (set decorator)|John W. Brown]] | ''[[Camelot (film)|Camelot]]'' |- | [[Mario Chiari]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Ed Graves]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Stuart A. Reiss]] | ''[[Doctor Dolittle (film)|Doctor Dolittle]]'' |- | [[Robert Clatworthy]] | [[Frank Tuttle (set decorator)|Frank Tuttle]] | ''[[Guess Who's Coming to Dinner]]'' |- | [[Renzo Mongiardino]]<br>[[John DeCuir]]<br>[[Elven Webb]]<br>[[Giuseppe Mariani]] | [[Dario Simoni]]<br>[[Luigi Gervasi]] | ''[[The Taming of the Shrew (1967 film)|The Taming of the Shrew]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[George C. Webb]] | [[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Thoroughly Modern Millie]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1968<br />{{small|[[41st Academy Awards|(41st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Box]]<br>[[Terence Marsh]] | [[Vernon Dixon]]<br>[[Ken Muggleston]] | ''[[Oliver! (film)|Oliver!]]'' |- | [[George Davis (art director)|George Davis]]<br>[[Edward Carfagno]] | — | ''[[The Shoes of the Fisherman]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[Howard Bristol]] | ''[[Star! (film)|Star!]]'' |- | [[Anthony Masters]]<br>[[Harry Lange (film designer)|Harry Lange]]<br>[[Ernie Archer]] | — | ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' |- | [[Mikhail Bogdanov (production designer)|Mikhail Bogdanov]]<br>[[Gennady Myasnikov]] | [[Georgi Koshelev]]<br>[[Vladimir Uvarov]] | ''[[War and Peace (film series)|War and Peace]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1969<br />{{small|[[42nd Academy Awards|(42nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Decuir]]<br>[[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Herman Blumenthal]] | [[Walter M. Scott]]<br>[[George Hopkins (set designer)|George Hopkins]]<br>[[Raphael Bretton]] | ''[[Hello, Dolly! (film)|Hello, Dolly!]]'' |- | [[Maurice Carter (film designer)|Maurice Carter]]<br>[[Lionel Couch]] | [[Patrick McLoughlin (set decorator)|Patrick McLoughlin]] | ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' |- | [[Robert F. Boyle]]<br>[[George B. Chan]] | [[Edward G. Boyle]]<br>[[Carl Biddiscombe]] | ''[[Gaily, Gaily]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[George C. Webb]] | [[Jack D. Moore]] | ''[[Sweet Charity (film)|Sweet Charity]]'' |- | [[Harry Horner]] | [[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[They Shoot Horses, Don't They? (film)|They Shoot Horses, Don't They?]]'' |} ===1970s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art Director(s) ! width="19%" | Set Decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1970<br />{{small|[[43rd Academy Awards|(43rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Urie McCleary]]<br>[[Gil Parrondo]] | [[Antonio Mateos]]<br>[[Pierre-Louis Thevenet]] | ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Jack D. Moore]]<br>[[Mickey S. Michaels]] | ''[[Airport (1970 film)|Airport]]'' |- | [[Tambi Larsen]] | [[Darrell Silvera]] | ''[[The Molly MaGuires]]'' |- | [[Terence Marsh]]<br>[[Bob Cartwright]] | [[Pamela Cornell]] | ''[[Scrooge (1970 film)|Scrooge]]'' |- | [[Jack Martin Smith]]<br>[[Yoshirō Muraki]]<br>[[Richard Day (art director)|Richard Day]]<br>[[Taizoh Kawashima]] | [[Samuel M. Comer]]<br>[[Arthur Krams]] | ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1971<br />{{small|[[44th Academy Awards|(44th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Box]]<br>[[Ernest Archer]]<br>[[Jack Maxsted]]<br>[[Gil Parrondo]] | [[Vernon Dixon]] | ''[[Nicholas and Alexandra]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]]<br>[[William Tuntke]] | [[Ruby Levitt]] | ''[[The Andromeda Strain (film)|The Andromeda Strain]]'' |- | [[John B. Mansbridge]]<br>[[Peter Ellenshaw]] | [[Emile Kuri]]<br>[[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[Bedknobs and Broomsticks]]'' |- | [[Robert F. Boyle]]<br>[[Michael Stringer]] | [[Peter Lamont]] | ''[[Fiddler on the Roof (film)|Fiddler on the Roof]]'' |- | [[Terence Marsh]]<br>[[Robert Cartwright]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] | ''[[Mary, Queen of Scots (1971 film)|Mary, Queen of Scots]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1972<br />{{small|[[45th Academy Awards|(45th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Rolf Zehetbauer]]<br>[[Jurgen Kiebach]] | [[Herbert Strabel]] | ''[[Cabaret (1972 film)|Cabaret]]'' |- | [[Carl Anderson (art director)|Carl Anderson]] | [[Reg Allen (set decorator)|Reg Allen]] | ''[[Lady Sings the Blues (film)|Lady Sings the Blues]]'' |- | [[William Creber]] | [[Raphael Bretton]] | ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' |- | [[John Box]]<br>[[Gil Parrondo]]<br>[[Robert W. Laing]] | — | ''[[Travels with My Aunt (film)|Travels with My Aunt]]'' |- | [[Donald M. Ashton]]<br>[[Geoffrey Drake]] | [[John Graysmark]]<br>[[William Hutchinson (art director)|William Hutchinson]]<br>[[Peter James (set decorator)|Peter James]] | ''[[Young Winston]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1973<br />{{small|[[46th Academy Awards|(46th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Henry Bumstead]] | [[James W. Payne]] | ''[[The Sting]]'' |- | [[Lorenzo Mongiardino]]<br>[[Gianni Quaranta]] | [[Carmelo Patrono]] | ''[[Brother Sun, Sister Moon]]'' |- | [[Bill Malley]] | [[Jerry Wunderlich]] | ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' |- | [[Philip Jefferies]] | [[Robert de Vestel]] | ''[[Tom Sawyer (1973 film)|Tom Sawyer]]'' |- | [[Stephen Grimes]] | [[William Kiernan]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | ''[[The Way We Were]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1974<br />{{small|[[47th Academy Awards|(47th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Dean Tavoularis]]<br>[[Angelo Graham]] | [[George R. Nelson]] | ''[[The Godfather Part II]]'' |- | [[Richard Sylbert]]<br>[[W. Stewart Campbell]] | [[Ruby Levitt]] | ''[[Chinatown (1974 film)|Chinatown]]'' |- | [[Alexander Golitzen]]<br>[[E. Preston Ames]] | [[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[Earthquake (film)|Earthquake]]'' |- | [[Peter Ellenshaw]]<br>[[John B. Mansbridge]]<br>[[Walter H. Tyler|Walter Tyler]]<br>[[Al Roelofs]] | [[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[The Island at the Top of the World]]'' |- | [[William Creber]]<br>[[Ward Preston]] | [[Raphael Bretton]] | ''[[The Towering Inferno]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1975<br />{{small|[[48th Academy Awards|(48th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Ken Adam]]<br>[[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]] | [[Vernon Dixon]] | ''[[Barry Lyndon]]'' |- | [[Edward Carfagno]] | [[Frank McKelvy]] | ''[[The Hindenburg (1975 film)|The Hindenburg]]'' |- | [[Alexander Trauner]]<br>[[Tony Inglis]] | [[Peter James (set decorator)|Peter James]] | ''[[The Man Who Would Be King (film)|The Man Who Would Be King]]'' |- | [[Richard Sylbert]]<br>[[W. Stewart Campbell]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] | ''[[Shampoo (film)|Shampoo]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] | ''[[The Sunshine Boys (film)|The Sunshine Boys]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1976<br />{{small|[[49th Academy Awards|(49th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[George C. Jenkins|George Jenkins]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] | ''[[All the President's Men (film)|All the President's Men]]'' |- | [[Elliot Scott]] | [[Norman Reynolds]] | ''[[The Incredible Sarah]]'' |- | [[Gene Callahan (motion picture art director)|Gene Callahan]]<br>[[Jack Collis]] | [[Jerry Wunderlich]] | ''[[The Last Tycoon (1976 film)|The Last Tycoon]]'' |- | [[Dale Hennesy]] | [[Robert de Vestel]] | ''[[Logan's Run (film)|Logan's Run]]'' |- | [[Robert F. Boyle]] | [[Arthur Jeph Parker]] | ''[[The Shootist]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1977<br />{{small|[[50th Academy Awards|(50th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[John Barry (set designer)|John Barry]]<br>[[Norman Reynolds]]<br>[[Leslie Dilley]] | [[Roger Christian (filmmaker)|Roger Christian]] | ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'' |- | [[George C. Webb]] | [[Mickey S. Michaels]] | ''[[Airport '77]]'' |- | [[Joe Alves]]<br>[[Dan Lomino]] | [[Phil Abramson]] | ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' |- | [[Ken Adam]]<br>[[Peter Lamont]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] | ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me (film)|The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] | ''[[The Turning Point (1977 film)|The Turning Point]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1978<br />{{small|[[51st Academy Awards|(51st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Paul Sylbert]]<br>[[Edwin O'Donovan]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] | ''[[Heaven Can Wait (1978 film)|Heaven Can Wait]]'' |- | [[Dean Tavoularis]]<br>[[Angelo Graham]] | [[George R. Nelson]] | ''[[The Brink's Job]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Marvin March]] | ''[[California Suite (film)|California Suite]]'' |- | [[Mel Bourne]] | [[Daniel Robert]] | ''[[Interiors]]'' |- | [[Tony Walton]]<br>[[Philip Rosenberg]] | [[Edward Stewart (set decorator)|Edward Stewart]]<br>[[Robert Drumheller]] | ''[[The Wiz (film)|The Wiz]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1979<br />{{small|[[52nd Academy Awards|(52nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Philip Rosenberg]]<br>[[Tony Walton]] | [[Edward Stewart (set decorator)|Edward Stewart]]<br>[[Gary Brink]] | ''[[All That Jazz (film)|All That Jazz]]'' |- | [[Michael Seymour (production designer)|Michael Seymour]]<br>[[Les Dilley]]<br>[[Roger Christian (filmmaker)|Roger Christian]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] | ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' |- | [[Dean Tavoularis]]<br>[[Angelo Graham]] | [[George R. Nelson]] | ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' |- | [[George C. Jenkins|George Jenkins]] | [[Arthur Jeph Parker]] | ''[[The China Syndrome]]'' |- | [[Harold Michelson]]<br>[[Joe Jennings]]<br>[[Leon Harris (art director)|Leon Harris]]<br>[[John Vallone]] | [[Linda Descenna]] | ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' |} ===1980s=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="8%" | Year ! width="19%" | Art Director(s) ! width="19%" | Set Decorator(s) ! width="19%" | Film |- |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1980<br />{{small|[[53rd Academy Awards|(53rd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Pierre Guffroy]]<br>[[Jack Stephens (set decorator)|Jack Stephens]] | — | ''[[Tess (film)|Tess]]'' |- | [[John W. Corso]] | [[John M. Dwyer]] | ''[[Coal Miner's Daughter]]'' |- | [[Stuart Craig]]<br>[[Robert Cartwright]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] | ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'' |- | [[Norman Reynolds]]<br>[[Leslie Dilley]]<br>[[Harry Lange (film designer)|Harry Lange]]<br>[[Alan Tomkins]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] | ''[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back|The Empire Strikes Back]]'' |- | [[Yoshirō Muraki]] | — | ''[[Kagemusha]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1981<br />{{small|[[54th Academy Awards|(54th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Norman Reynolds]]<br>[[Leslie Dilley]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] | ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' |- | [[Assheton Gorton]] | [[Ann Mollo]] | ''[[The French Lieutenant's Woman (film)|The French Lieutenant's Woman]]'' |- | [[Tambi Larsen]] | [[James L. Berkey]] | ''[[Heaven's Gate (film)|Heaven's Gate]]'' |- | [[John Graysmark]]<br>[[Patrizia von Brandenstein]]<br>[[Tony Reading]] | [[George DeTitta Sr.]]<br>[[George DeTitta, Jr.]]<br>[[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] | ''[[Ragtime (film)|Ragtime]]'' |- | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[Michael Seirton]] | ''[[Reds (film)|Reds]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1982<br />{{small|[[55th Academy Awards|(55th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Stuart Craig]]<br>[[Robert W. Laing]] | [[Michael Seirton]] | ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' |- | [[Dale Hennesy]] {{small|([[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees|posthumous nomination]])}} | [[Marvin March]] | ''[[Annie (1982 film)|Annie]]'' |- | [[Lawrence G. Paull]]<br>[[David L. Snyder]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] | ''[[Blade Runner]]'' |- | [[Franco Zeffirelli]]<br>[[Gianni Quaranta]] | — | ''[[La traviata (1983 film)|La traviata]]'' |- | [[Rodger Maus]]<br>[[Tim Hutchinson (production designer)|Tim Hutchinson]]<br>[[William Craig Smith]] | [[Harry Cordwell]] | ''[[Victor Victoria]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1983<br />{{small|[[56th Academy Awards|(56th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Anna Asp]] | [[Susanne Lingheim]] | ''[[Fanny and Alexander]]'' |- | [[Norman Reynolds]]<br>[[Fred Hole]]<br>[[James L. Schoppe]] | [[Michael D. Ford]] | ''[[Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi|Return of the Jedi]]'' |- | [[Geoffrey Kirkland]]<br>[[Richard Lawrence (art director)|Richard Lawrence]]<br>[[W. Stewart Campbell]]<br>[[Peter R. Romero]] | [[Jim Poynter]]<br>[[George R. Nelson]] | ''[[The Right Stuff (film)|The Right Stuff]]'' |- | [[Polly Platt]]<br>[[Harold Michelson]] | [[Tom Pedigo]]<br>[[Anthony Mondell]] | ''[[Terms of Endearment]]'' |- | [[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]]<br>[[Leslie Tomkins]] | [[Tessa Davies]] | ''[[Yentl (film)|Yentl]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1984<br />{{small|[[57th Academy Awards|(57th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Patrizia von Brandenstein]] | [[Karel Černý (art director)|Karel Černý]] | ''[[Amadeus (film)|Amadeus]]'' |- | [[Richard Sylbert]] | [[George Gaines (set decorator)|George Gaines]] | ''[[The Cotton Club (film)|The Cotton Club]]'' |- | [[Mel Bourne]]<br>[[Angelo P. Graham]] | [[Bruce Weintraub]] | ''[[The Natural (film)|The Natural]]'' |- | [[John Box]] | [[Hugh Scaife]] | ''[[A Passage to India (film)|A Passage to India]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Rick Simpson]] | ''[[2010 (film)|2010]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1985<br />{{small|[[58th Academy Awards|(58th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Stephen Grimes]] | [[Josie Macavin]] | ''[[Out of Africa (film)|Out of Africa]]'' |- | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Maggie Gray]] | ''[[Brazil (1985 film)|Brazil]]'' |- | [[J. Michael Riva]]<br>[[Bo Welch]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] | ''[[The Color Purple (film)|The Color Purple]]'' |- | [[Yoshirō Muraki]]<br>[[Shinobu Muraki]] | — | ''[[Ran (film)|Ran]]'' |- | [[Stan Jolley]] | [[John H. Anderson]] | ''[[Witness (1985 film)|Witness]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1986<br />{{small|[[59th Academy Awards|(59th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Gianni Quaranta]]<br>[[Brian Ackland-Snow]] | [[Brian Savegar]]<br>[[Elio Altamura]] | ''[[A Room with a View (1985 film)|A Room with a View]]'' |- | [[Peter Lamont]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] | ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'' |- | [[Boris Leven]] | [[Karen O'Hara]] | ''[[The Color of Money (film)|The Color of Money]]'' |- | [[Stuart Wurtzel]] | [[Carol Joffe]] | ''[[Hannah and Her Sisters]]'' |- | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Jack Stephens (set decorator)|Jack Stephens]] | ''[[The Mission (1986 film)|The Mission]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1987<br />{{small|[[60th Academy Awards|(60th)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Ferdinando Scarfiotti]] | [[Bruno Cesari]]<br>[[Osvaldo Desideri]] | ''[[The Last Emperor]]'' |- | [[Norman Reynolds]] | [[Harry Cordwell]] | ''[[Empire of the Sun (film)|Empire of the Sun]]'' |- | [[Anthony D. G. Pratt|Anthony Pratt]] | [[Joanne Woollard]] | ''[[Hope and Glory (film)|Hope and Glory]]'' |- | [[Santo Loquasto]] | [[Carol Joffe]]<br>[[Leslie Bloom]]<br>[[George DeTitta Jr.]] | ''[[Radio Days]]'' |- | [[Patrizia von Brandenstein]]<br>[[William A. Elliott]] | [[Hal Gausman]] | ''[[The Untouchables (film)|The Untouchables]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1988<br />{{small|[[61st Academy Awards|(61st)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Gérard James]] | ''[[Dangerous Liaisons]]'' |- | [[Albert Brenner]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] | ''[[Beaches (film)|Beaches]]'' |- | [[Ida Random]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] | ''[[Rain Man]]'' |- | [[Dean Tavoularis]] | [[Armin Ganz]] | ''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]'' |- | [[Elliot Scott]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] | ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | 1989<br />{{small|[[62nd Academy Awards|(62nd)]]}} |- style="background:#FAEB86" | [[Anton Furst]] | [[Peter Young (set decorator)|Peter Young]] | ''[[Batman (1989 film)|Batman]]'' |- | [[Leslie Dilley]] | [[Anne Kuljian]] | ''[[The Abyss]]'' |- | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] | ''[[The Adventures of Baron Munchausen]]'' |- | [[Bruno Rubeo]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] | ''[[Driving Miss Daisy]]'' |- | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] | ''[[Glory (1989 film)|Glory]]'' |} ===1990s===<!-- This section is linked from [[Quills]] --> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="12%" | Year ! width="29%" | Film ! width="29%" | Art Director(s) ! width="29%" | Set Decorator(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1990 in film|1990]]'''<br /><small>[[63rd Academy Awards|(63rd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Dick Tracy (1990 film)|Dick Tracy]]''''' | '''[[Richard Sylbert]]''' | '''[[Rick Simpson]]''' |- | ''[[Cyrano de Bergerac (1990 film)|Cyrano de Bergerac]]'' | [[Ezio Frigerio]] | [[Jacques Rouxel (production designer)|Jacques Rouxel]] |- | ''[[Dances with Wolves]]'' | [[Jeffrey Beecroft]] | [[Lisa Dean]] |- | ''[[The Godfather Part III]]'' | [[Dean Tavoularis]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |- | ''[[Hamlet (1990 film)|Hamlet]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1991 in film|1991]]'''<br /><small>[[64th Academy Awards|(64th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Bugsy]]''''' | '''[[Dennis Gassner]]''' | '''[[Nancy Haigh]]''' |- | ''[[Barton Fink]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[The Fisher King (film)|The Fisher King]]'' | [[Mel Bourne]] | [[Cindy Carr]] |- | ''[[Hook (film)|Hook]]'' | [[Norman Garwood]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] |- | ''[[The Prince of Tides]]'' | [[Paul Sylbert]] | [[Caryl Heller]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1992 in film|1992]]'''<br /><small>[[65th Academy Awards|(65th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Howards End (film)|Howards End]]''''' | '''[[Luciana Arrighi]]''' | '''[[Ian Whittaker]]''' |- | ''[[Dracula (1992 film)|Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' | [[Thomas E. Sanders]] | [[Garrett Lewis]] |- | ''[[Chaplin (film)|Chaplin]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Chris A. Butler]] |- | ''[[Toys (film)|Toys]]'' | [[Ferdinando Scarfiotti]] | [[Linda DeScenna]] |- | ''[[Unforgiven]]'' | [[Henry Bumstead]] | [[Janice Blackie-Goodine]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1993 in film|1993]]'''<br /><small>[[66th Academy Awards|(66th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Schindler's List]]''''' | '''[[Allan Starski]]''' | '''[[Ewa Braun]]''' |- | ''[[Addams Family Values]]'' | [[Ken Adam]] | [[Marvin March]] |- | ''[[The Age of Innocence (1993 film)|The Age of Innocence]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Robert J. Franco]] |- | ''[[Orlando (film)|Orlando]]'' | [[Ben Van Os]] and [[Jan Roelfs]] | — |- | ''[[The Remains of the Day (film)|The Remains of the Day]]'' | [[Luciana Arrighi]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1994 in film|1994]]'''<br /><small>[[67th Academy Awards|(67th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Madness of King George]]''''' | '''[[Ken Adam]]''' | '''[[Carolyn Scott]]''' |- | ''[[Bullets Over Broadway]]'' | [[Santo Loquasto]] | [[Susan Bode]] |- | ''[[Forrest Gump]]'' | [[Rick Carter]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles|Interview with the Vampire]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[Legends of the Fall]]'' | [[Lilly Kilvert]] | [[Dorree Cooper]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1995 in film|1995]]'''<br /><small>[[68th Academy Awards|(68th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Restoration (1995 film)|Restoration]]''''' | '''[[Eugenio Zanetti]]''' | — |- | ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' | [[Michael Corenblith]] | [[Merideth Boswell]] |- | ''[[Babe (film)|Babe]]'' | [[Roger Ford (production designer)|Roger Ford]] | [[Kerrie Brown]] |- | ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[Richard III (1995 film)|Richard III]]'' | [[Tony Burrough]] | — |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1996 in film|1996]]'''<br /><small>[[69th Academy Awards|(69th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]''''' | '''[[Stuart Craig]]''' | '''[[Stephenie McMillan]]''' |- | ''[[The Birdcage]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[Evita (film)|Evita]]'' | [[Brian Morris (art director)|Brian Morris]] | [[Philippe Turlure]] |- | ''[[Hamlet (1996 film)|Hamlet]]'' | [[Tim Harvey (art director)|Tim Harvey]] | — |- | ''[[Romeo + Juliet]]'' | [[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]] | [[Brigitte Broch]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1997 in film|1997]]'''<br /><small>[[70th Academy Awards|(70th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]''''' | '''[[Peter Lamont]]''' | '''[[Michael D. Ford]]''' |- | ''[[Gattaca]]'' | [[Jan Roelfs]] | [[Nancy Nye]] |- | ''[[Kundun]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[L.A. Confidential (film)|L.A. Confidential]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Jay Hart]] |- | ''[[Men in Black (film)|Men in Black]]'' | [[Bo Welch]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1998 in film|1998]]'''<br /><small>[[71st Academy Awards|(71st)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Shakespeare in Love]]''''' | '''[[Martin Childs]]''' | '''[[Jill Quertier]]''' |- | ''[[Elizabeth (film)|Elizabeth]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Peter Howitt (set decorator)|Peter Howitt]] |- | ''[[Pleasantville (film)|Pleasantville]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Jay Hart]] |- | ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' | [[Tom Sanders (art director)|Tom Sanders]] | [[Lisa Dean Kavanaugh]] |- | ''[[What Dreams May Come (film)|What Dreams May Come]]'' | [[Eugenio Zanetti]] | [[Cindy Carr]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[1999 in film|1999]]'''<br /><small>[[72nd Academy Awards|(72nd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Sleepy Hollow (film)|Sleepy Hollow]]''''' | '''[[Rick Heinrichs]]''' | '''[[Peter Young (set decorator)|Peter Young]]''' |- | ''[[Anna and the King]]'' | [[Luciana Arrighi]] | [[Ian Whittaker]] |- | ''[[The Cider House Rules (film)|The Cider House Rules]]'' | [[David Gropman]] | [[Beth Rubino]] |- | ''[[The Talented Mr. Ripley (film)|The Talented Mr. Ripley]]'' | [[Roy Walker (production designer)|Roy Walker]] | [[Bruno Cesari]] |- | ''[[Topsy-Turvy]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | [[John Bush (set decorator)|John Bush]] |} ===2000s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="12%" | Year ! width="29%" | Film ! width="29%" | Art Director(s) ! width="29%" | Set Decorator(s) |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2000 in film|2000]]'''<br /><small>[[73rd Academy Awards|(73rd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]''''' | '''[[Tim Yip]]''' | — |- | ''[[Gladiator (2000 film)|Gladiator]]'' | [[Arthur Max]] | [[Crispian Sallis]] |- | ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas (film)|How the Grinch Stole Christmas]]'' | [[Michael Corenblith]] | [[Merideth Boswell]] |- | ''[[Quills]]'' | [[Martin Childs]] | [[Jill Quertier]] |- | ''[[Vatel (film)|Vatel]]'' | [[Jean Rabasse]] | [[Françoise Benoît-Fresco]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2001 in film|2001]]'''<br /><small>[[74th Academy Awards|(74th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Moulin Rouge!]]''''' | '''[[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]]''' | '''[[Brigitte Broch]]''' |- | ''[[Amélie]]'' | [[Aline Bonetto]] | [[Marie-Laure Valla]] |- | ''[[Gosford Park]]'' | [[Stephen Altman]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)|Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2002 in film|2002]]'''<br /><small>[[75th Academy Awards|(75th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Chicago (2002 film)|Chicago]]''''' | '''[[John Myhre]]''' | '''[[Gordon Sim]]''' |- | ''[[Frida]]'' | [[Felipe Fernández del Paso]] | [[Hannia Robledo]] |- | ''[[Gangs of New York]]'' | [[Dante Ferretti]] | [[Francesca Lo Schiavo]] |- | ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] and [[Alan Lee (illustrator)|Alan Lee]] |- | ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2003 in film|2003]]'''<br /><small>[[76th Academy Awards|(76th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]''''' | '''[[Grant Major]]''' | '''[[Dan Hennah]] and [[Alan Lee (illustrator)|Alan Lee]]''' |- | ''[[Girl with a Pearl Earring (film)|Girl with a Pearl Earring]]'' | [[Ben Van Os]] | [[Cecile Heideman]] |- | ''[[The Last Samurai]]'' | [[Lilly Kilvert]] | [[Gretchen Rau]] |- | ''[[Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World]]'' | [[William Sandell]] | [[Robert Gould (art director)|Robert Gould]] |- | ''[[Seabiscuit (film)|Seabiscuit]]'' | [[Jeannine Oppewall]] | [[Leslie Pope]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2004 in film|2004]]'''<br /><small>[[77th Academy Awards|(77th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Aviator (2004 film)|The Aviator]]''''' | '''[[Dante Ferretti]]''' | '''[[Francesca Lo Schiavo]]''' |- | ''[[Finding Neverland]]'' | [[Gemma Jackson]] | [[Trisha Edwards]] |- | ''[[Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events (film)|Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events]]'' | [[Rick Heinrichs]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' | [[Anthony D. G. Pratt|Anthony Pratt]] | [[Celia Bobak]] |- | ''[[A Very Long Engagement]]'' | [[Aline Bonetto]] | — |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2005 in film|2005]]'''<br /><small>[[78th Academy Awards|(78th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Memoirs of a Geisha (film)|Memoirs of a Geisha]]''''' | '''[[John Myhre]]''' | '''[[Gretchen Rau]]''' |- | ''[[Good Night, and Good Luck.]]'' | [[Jim Bissell]] | [[Jan Pascale]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film)|Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]]'' | [[Grant Major]] | [[Dan Hennah]] and [[Simon Bright]] |- | ''[[Pride and Prejudice (2005 film)|Pride & Prejudice]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2006 in film|2006]]'''<br /><small>[[79th Academy Awards|(79th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Pan's Labyrinth]]''''' | '''[[Eugenio Caballero]]''' | '''[[Pilar Revuelta]]''' |- | ''[[Dreamgirls (film)|Dreamgirls]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | ''[[The Good Shepherd (film)|The Good Shepherd]]'' | [[Jeannine Claudia Oppewall]] | [[Gretchen Rau]] and [[Leslie E. Rollins]] |- | ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest]]'' | [[Rick Heinrichs]] | [[Cheryl Carasik]] |- | ''[[The Prestige (film)|The Prestige]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Julie Ochipinti]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2007 in film|2007]]'''<br /><small>[[80th Academy Awards|(80th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film)|Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street]]''''' | '''[[Dante Ferretti]]''' | '''[[Francesca Lo Schiavo]]''' |- | ''[[American Gangster (film)|American Gangster]]'' | [[Arthur Max]] | [[Beth A. Rubino]] |- | ''[[Atonement (film)|Atonement]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Golden Compass (film)|The Golden Compass]]'' | [[Dennis Gassner]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | ''[[There Will Be Blood]]'' | [[Jack Fisk]] | [[Jim Erickson]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2008 in film|2008]]'''<br /><small>[[81st Academy Awards|(81st)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (film)|The Curious Case of Benjamin Button]]''''' | '''[[Donald Graham Burt]]''' | '''[[Victor J. Zolfo]]''' |- | ''[[Changeling (2008 film)|Changeling]]'' | [[James J. Murakami]] | [[Gary Fettis]] |- | ''[[The Dark Knight (film)|The Dark Knight]]'' | [[Nathan Crowley]] | [[Peter Lando]] |- | ''[[The Duchess (film)|The Duchess]]'' | [[Michael Carlin (art director)|Michael Carlin]] | [[Rebecca Alleway]] |- | ''[[Revolutionary Road (film)|Revolutionary Road]]'' | [[Kristi Zea]] | [[Debra Schutt]] |- | rowspan=6 style="text-align:center" | '''[[2009 in film|2009]]'''<br /><small>[[82nd Academy Awards|(82nd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]''''' | '''[[Rick Carter]] and [[Robert Stromberg]]''' | '''[[Kim Sinclair]]''' |- | ''[[The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus]]'' | [[Dave Warren (art director)|Dave Warren]] and [[Anastasia Masaro]] | [[Caroline Smith (set decorator)|Caroline Smith]] |- | ''[[Nine (2009 live-action film)|Nine]]'' | [[John Myhre]] | [[Gordon Sim]] |- | ''[[Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)|Sherlock Holmes]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Young Victoria]]'' | [[Patrice Vermette]] | [[Maggie Gray]] |} ===2010s=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" |- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="12%" | Year ! width="29%" | Film ! width="29%" | Art Director(s) ! width="29%" | Set Decorator(s) |- |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2010 in film|2010]]'''<br /><small>[[83rd Academy Awards|(83rd)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]''''' | '''[[Robert Stromberg]]''' | '''[[Karen O'Hara]]''' |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[Inception]]'' | [[Guy Hendrix Dyas]] | [[Larry Dias]] and [[Doug Mowat (set director)|Doug Mowat]] |- | ''[[The King's Speech]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | [[Judy Farr]] |- | ''[[True Grit (2010 film)|True Grit]]'' | [[Jess Gonchor]] | [[Nancy Haigh]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2011 in film|2011]]'''<br /><small>[[84th Academy Awards|(84th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Hugo (film)|Hugo]]''''' | '''[[Dante Ferretti]]''' | '''[[Francesca Lo Schiavo]]''' |- | ''[[The Artist (film)|The Artist]]'' | [[Laurence Bennett]] | [[Robert Gould (art director)|Robert Gould]] |- | ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2]]'' | [[Stuart Craig]] | [[Stephenie McMillan]] |- | ''[[Midnight in Paris]]'' | [[Anne Seibel]] | [[Hélène Dubreuil]] |- | ''[[War Horse (film)|War Horse]]'' | [[Rick Carter]] | [[Lee Sandales]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2012 in film|2012]]'''<br /><small>[[85th Academy Awards|(85th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[Lincoln (2012 film)|Lincoln]]''''' | '''[[Rick Carter]]''' | '''[[Jim Erickson]]''' |- | ''[[Anna Karenina (2012 film)|Anna Karenina]]'' | [[Sarah Greenwood]] | [[Katie Spencer]] |- | ''[[The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey]]'' | [[Dan Hennah]] | [[Ra Vincent]] and [[Simon Bright]] |- | ''[[Les Misérables (2012 film)|Les Misérables]]'' | [[Eve Stewart]] | [[Anna Lynch-Robinson]] |- | ''[[Life of Pi (film)|Life of Pi]]'' | [[David Gropman]] | [[Anna Pinnock]] |- | rowspan="6" style="text-align:center" | '''[[2013 in film|2013]]'''<br /><small>[[86th Academy Awards|(86th)]]</small> |- style="background:#FAEB86" | '''''[[The Great Gatsby (2013 film)|The Great Gatsby]]''''' | '''[[Catherine Martin (designer)|Catherine Martin]]''' | '''[[Beverley Dunn]]''' |- | ''[[12 Years a Slave (film)|12 Years a Slave]]'' | [[Adam Stockhausen]] | [[Alice Baker (set decorator)|Alice Baker]] |- | ''[[American Hustle (2013 film)|American Hustle]]'' | [[Judy Becker]] | [[Heather Loeffler]] |- | ''[[Gravity (2013 film)|Gravity]]'' | [[Andy Nicholson (production designer)|Andy Nicholson]] | [[Rosie Goodwin]] and [[Joanne Woollard]] |- | ''[[Her (film)|Her]]'' | [[K.K. Barrett]] | [[Gene Serdena]] |} ==References== {{reflist|2}} {{Academy Awards}} {{Academy Award Best Art Direction}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Academy Award For Best Art Direction}} [[Category:Academy Awards|Art Direction]] [[Category:Best Art Direction Academy Award winners|*]] [[Category:Awards for best art direction]] 6jtseqz72504w9udo14029ekkccojwz wikitext text/x-wiki 0 324 601911676 601911670 2014-03-30T03:25:14Z ClueBot NG 13286072 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contributions/Johnapishko|Johnapishko]] to version by Scalhotrod. False positive? [[User:ClueBot NG/FalsePositives|Report it]]. Thanks, [[User:ClueBot NG|ClueBot NG]]. (1770445) (Bot) {{Redirect2|Oscars|The Oscar|the film|The Oscar (film)|other uses of the word "Oscar"|Oscar (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Infobox award | name = Academy Awards | current_awards = 86th Academy Awards | image = File:ACMI 14.jpg | alt = | caption = [[Cate Blanchett]]'s Oscar for playing [[Katharine Hepburn]] in ''[[The Aviator (2004 film)|The Aviator]]'' in 2004 | description = Excellence in cinematic achievements | presenter = [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] | country = United States | year = 1929 | website = {{url|www.oscars.org}} }} The '''Academy Awards''', commonly known as '''The Oscars''',<ref>{{cite news|last=Pond|first=Steve|title=AMPAS Drops '85th Academy Awards' - Now It's Just 'The Oscars'|url=http://www.thewrap.com/awards/column-post/ampas-drops-85th-academy-awards-now-its-just-oscars-78211|accessdate=22 February 2013|newspaper=The Wrap|date=19 February 2013}}</ref> is an annual American awards ceremony honoring achievements in the [[film industry]]. Winners are awarded the statuette, officially the '''Academy Award of Merit,''' that is much better known by its nickname Oscar. The awards, first presented in 1929 at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]], are overseen by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (AMPAS).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/index.html |title = About the Academy Awards |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070407234926/http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/index.html |archivedate = 7 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,273341,00.html | title=The Birth of Oscar | first=Andrew | last=Essex | work=[[Entertainment Weekly]] | date=14 May 1999 | accessdate=2 March 2011}}</ref> The awards ceremony was first televised in 1953 and is now seen live in more than 200 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Academy Awards|url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/history.html|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate=13 January 2014}}</ref> The Oscars is also the oldest entertainment awards ceremony; its equivalents, the [[Emmy Awards]] for television, the [[Tony Awards]] for theatre, and the [[Grammy Awards]] for music and recording, are modeled after the Academy Awards. The [[86th Academy Awards]] ceremony was held on March 2, 2014, at the [[Dolby Theatre]] in Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite web|title=2014 Oscars show moves to March to avoid Winter Olympics clash|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/sns-rt-film-oscars2014l2n0ch1d5-20130325,0,4480470.story|publisher=Chicago Tribune|accessdate=25 March 2013}}</ref> {{TOC limit|2}} ==History== [[File:FONTAINE-COOPER.jpg|thumb|[[Gary Cooper]] and [[Joan Fontaine]] holding their Oscars at the Academy Awards, 1942]] The [[first Academy Awards]] were presented on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]] with an audience of about 270 people. The post Academy Awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel.<ref name="history">{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/history.html|title=History of the Academy Awards|work=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences}}</ref> The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5. Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other personalities of the film-making industry of the time for their works during the 1927–28 period; the ceremony ran for 15 minutes. Winners had been announced to media three months earlier; however, that was changed in the second ceremony of the Academy Awards in 1930. Since then and during the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00&nbsp;pm on the night of the awards.<ref name="history"/> This method was used until the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has since 1941 used a sealed envelope to reveal the name of the winners.<ref name="history"/> The first Best Actor awarded was [[Emil Jannings]], for his performances in ''[[The Last Command (1928 film)|The Last Command]]'' and ''[[The Way of All Flesh (film)|The Way of All Flesh]]''. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. The honored professionals were awarded for all the work done in a certain category for the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period and [[Janet Gaynor]] later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. Since the fourth ceremony, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. Many movie historians{{who|date=March 2014}} believe that ''High Noon'' lost out for the 1952 Best Picture Award to ''The Greatest Show on Earth'' because the initial release of ''High Noon'' bared a panoramic view of modern downtown Los Angeles.<ref>Wiley, Mason, Bona, Damien (1987). Inside Oscar: The Unofficial History of the Academy Awards. Burns & Oates. ISBN 0-345-34453-7.</ref> At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27, 1957, the [[Best Foreign Language Film]] category was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films were honored with the Special Achievement Award. {{As of|2011|alt=As of the 83rd Academy Awards ceremony held in 2011}}, a total of 2,894 Oscars have been given for 1,853 awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/awards/oscar.html|title= A Brief History of the Oscar|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 23 January 2012}}</ref> == Oscar statuette == === Design === Although there are seven other types of annual awards presented by the Academy (the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]], the [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]], the [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]], the [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]], the [[Academy Award for Technical Achievement]], the [[John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation]], and the [[Student Academy Award]]) plus two awards that are not presented annually (the Special Achievement Award in the form of an Oscar statuette and the Honorary Award that may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette), the best known one is the ''Academy Award of Merit'' more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated [[britannia metal|britannium]] on a black metal base, it is 13.5&nbsp;in (34&nbsp;cm) tall, weighs 8.5&nbsp;lb (3.85&nbsp;kg) and depicts a knight rendered in [[Art Deco]] style holding a [[crusades|crusader's]] sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/about/awards/oscar.html/?pn=statuette|title= Oscar Statuette: Legacy|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 13 April 2007}}</ref> In 1928, [[MGM]]'s art director [[Cedric Gibbons]], one of the original Academy members, supervised the design of the award [[trophy]] by printing the design on a scroll.<ref>{{Cite press release|url= http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2000/00.05.03.html|title= Academy to Commemorate Oscar Designer Cedric Gibbons|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|date=3 May 2007|accessdate = 13 April 2007}}</ref> In need of a model for his statuette, Gibbons was introduced by his future wife [[Dolores del Río]] to Mexican film director and actor [[Emilio Fernández|Emilio "El Indio" Fernández]]. Reluctant at first, Fernández was finally convinced to pose nude to create what today is known as the "Oscar". Then, sculptor [[George Stanley (sculptor)|George Stanley]] (who also did the Muse Fountain<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.hollywoodbowl.com/about/history.cfm | title=Muse Fountain}}</ref> at the [[Hollywood Bowl]]) sculpted Gibbons's design in clay and Sachin Smith cast the statuette in 92.5 percent [[tin]] and 7.5 percent copper and then gold-plated it. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in [[Batavia, Illinois]], which also contributed to casting the molds for the [[Vince Lombardi Trophy]] and [[Emmy Award]]s statuettes. Since 1983,<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/02/at_work.html#photo14| title=Eladio Gonzalez sands and buffs Oscar #3453| work=Boston Globe| date=20 February 2009| accessdate=21 February 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090223085458/http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2009/02/at_work.html| archivedate= 23 February 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> approximately 50 Oscars are made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer [[R.S. Owens & Company]].<ref>{{Cite news |first=Don |last=Babwin |title=Oscar 3453 is 'born' in Chicago factory |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jL1cVq-oMS6qeuUPUWfAQpf85fewD95V3MV80 | date=27 January 2009|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5e8JdSe3B |archivedate=27 January 2009}}</ref> The awards weigh {{convert|8.5|lb|kg}} each and take between three to four weeks to manufacture each statue.<ref>{{cite news | title = He Man Behind The Oscar | date = February/March 2014 | publisher = AARP | work = AARP The Magazine | accessdate = 2014-02-16}}</ref> In support of the American effort in World War II, the statuettes were made of plaster and were traded in for gold ones after the war had ended.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.oscars.com/legacy/?pn=statuette&page=2|title= Oscar Statuette: Manufacturing, Shipping and Repairs|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927134712/http://www.oscars.com/legacy/?pn=statuette&page=2 |archivedate = 27 September 2007}}</ref> === Naming === <!--Removed image as it is incorrectly rotated [[File:Donblacknightingale.JPG|right|thumb|Lyricist [[Don Black (lyricist)|Don Black]] shows his [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song Oscar]] for ''[[Born Free (song)|Born Free]]'' from the [[Born Free|1966 film of the same name]]]]--> The origin of the name ''Oscar'' is disputed. One biography of [[Bette Davis]] claims that she named the Oscar after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson;<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000012/bio|title= Bette Davis biography|publisher=The Internet Movie Database|accessdate = 13 April 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070308152931/http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000012/bio| archivedate= 8 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> one of the earliest mentions in print of the term ''Oscar'' dates back to a [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] article about the 1934 [[6th Academy Awards]].<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,747239,00.html | work=Time | title=Cinema: Oscars | date=26 March 1934}}</ref> [[Walt Disney]] is also quoted as thanking the Academy for his Oscar as early as 1932.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://d23.disney.go.com/news/2010/03/oscar-winning-walt/|title= Oscar®-Winning Walt|publisher=Disney.Go.com|accessdate = 25 February 2012}}</ref> Another claimed origin is that the Academy's Executive Secretary, [[Margaret Herrick]], first saw the award in 1931 and made reference to the statuette's reminding her of her "Uncle Oscar" (a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce).<ref>"Oscar" in ''The Oxford English Dictionary'', June 2008 Draft Revision.</ref> Columnist Sidney Skolsky was present during Herrick's naming and seized the name in his byline, "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar'".<ref>{{cite book| last = Levy| first = Emanuel| title = All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards| year = 2003| publisher = Burns & Oates| isbn = 978-0-8264-1452-6 }}</ref> The trophy was officially dubbed the "Oscar" in 1939 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. === Ownership of Oscar statuettes === Since 1950, the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that neither winners nor their heirs may sell the statuettes without first offering to sell them back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards not protected by this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums.<ref>(Levy 2003, pg 28)</ref> In December 2011, [[Orson Welles]]' 1941 Oscar for ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' ([[Best Original Screenplay]]) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/12/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|title = Orson Welles' 'Citizen Kane' Oscar for sale|publisher = CNN|first = Alan|last = Duke|date = December 12, 2011|accessdate = December 12, 2011}}</ref> On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542.<ref name="Welles' Oscar sold">{{cite news|title=Orson Welles' 'Citizen Kane' Oscar brings $861,000|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/12/21/showbiz/orson-welles-oscar/index.html|accessdate=April 7, 2013|newspaper=CNN|date=December 21, 2011|author=Duke, Alan}}</ref> While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market.<ref>{{Cite news |url = http://www.forbes.com/2005/02/28/cx_lr_0228oscarsales.html|title = Psst! Wanna Buy An Oscar?|work=Forbes |author=Lacey Rose|date=February 28, 2005|accessdate =April 13, 2007|archiveurl=http://archive.is/Sjws|archivedate=December 5, 2012}}</ref> [[Mike Todd|Michael Todd]]'s grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.<ref>(Levy 2003, pg 29)</ref> == Nomination == Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in late January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February. === Voters === The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of 5,783 {{as of|lc=y|2012}}.<ref>{{Cite news | author=Sandy Cohen | title=Academy Sets Oscars Contingency Plan | url=http://news.aol.com/entertainment/story/_a/oscars-contingency-plan/20080130161309990001 | work=AOL News | date=30 January 2008 | accessdate=19 March 2008| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20090203061252/http://news.aol.com/entertainment/story/_a/oscars-contingency-plan/20080130161309990001| archivedate= 3 February 2009}}</ref> Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (and its predecessor [[Price Waterhouse]]) for the past 73 annual awards ceremonies.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4769730.stm|title = The men who are counting on Oscar|publisher=BBC News|author=Jackie Finlay|date=3 March 2006|accessdate =13 April 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070319204536/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4769730.stm| archivedate= 19 March 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contribution to the field of motion pictures. New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2007/07.06.18.html|title = Academy Invites 115 to Become Members|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|accessdate = 4 September 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070827031611/http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2007/07.06.18.html |archivedate = 27 August 2007}}</ref> In 2012, the results of a study conducted by The Los Angeles Times was published which revealed the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%).<ref>{{cite news|last=Horn|first=John|title=Unmasking the Academy|url=http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/movies/academy/la-et-unmasking-oscar-academy-project-html,0,7473284.htmlstory|accessdate=15 October 2013|newspaper=The Los Angeles Times|date=Feb 19, 2012}}</ref> In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting will be implemented in 2013.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/electronic-voting-comes-to-the-oscars-finally | work=The New York Times | first=Michael | last=Cieply | title=Electronic Voting Comes to The Oscars (Finally) | date=23 May 2011}}</ref> === Rules === According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of 1 January to midnight at the end of 31 December, in [[Los Angeles County, California]], to qualify (except for the Best Foreign Language Film).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule02.html |title = Rule Two: Eligibility |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate = 13 April 2007 }}</ref> For example, the 2009 [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] winner, ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'', was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the [[81st Academy Awards|2008 awards]] as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the [[82nd Academy Awards|2009 awards]]. Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40&nbsp;minutes, except for short subject awards, and it must exist either on a [[35 mm film|35 mm]] or [[70 mm film]] print or in 24&nbsp;frame/s or 48&nbsp;frame/s [[progressive scan]] [[digital cinema]] format with native resolution not less than [[720p|1280×720]]. Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases. In late December ballots and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In all major categories, voters use an [[instant runoff voting]] ballot, with potential nominees rewarded in the [[single transferable vote]] tally for having strong supporters who rank them first.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://oscarvotes123.blogspot.com/2011/01/with-choice-voting-for-oscar.html|title = With choice voting for Oscar nominations, passion wins}}</ref> There are some exceptions in the case of certain categories, like Foreign Film, Documentary and Animated Feature Film, in which movies are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches. In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees for that category. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film per year.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.youbioit.com/en/article/shared-information/949/academy-and-its-oscar-awards |title = The Academy and its Oscar Awards – Reminder List of Eligible Releases }}</ref> The winners are then determined by a second round of voting in which all members are then allowed to vote in most categories, including Best Picture.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule05.html |title = Rule Five: Balloting and Nominations |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate = 13 April 2007 }}</ref> == Ceremony == === Telecast === [[File:31st Acad Awards.jpg|thumb|300px|31st Academy Awards Presentations, [[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theater]], Hollywood, 1959]] [[File:81st Academy Awards Ceremony.JPG|thumb|300px|81st Academy Awards Presentations, [[Dolby Theatre]], Hollywood, 2009]] The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, most commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. [[Black tie]] dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a [[bow-tie]], and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast). The Academy Awards is televised live across the United States (excluding Hawaii; they aired live in [[Alaska]] starting in 2011 for the first time since 1996), Canada, the United Kingdom, and gathers millions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oscar.com/oscarnight/?pn=internationalbroadcasters|title=International Broadcasters from Oscars.com|publisher=Oscars.com| archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090225132125/http://www.oscar.com/oscarnight/?pn=internationalbroadcasters |archivedate= 25 February 2009}}</ref> The 2007 ceremony was watched by more than 40 million Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nielsen.com/media/2008/pr_080221a.html |title=Nielsen – Press Release: The Nielsen Company's 2008 Guide to the Academy Awards |publisher=Nielsen.com |date= |accessdate=2014-02-26}}</ref> Other awards ceremonies (such as the Emmys, Golden Globes, and [[Grammy Award|Grammys]]) are broadcast live in the East Coast but are on [[Broadcast delay|tape delay]] in the West Coast and might not air on the same day outside North America (if the awards are even televised). The Academy has for several years claimed that the award show has up to a billion viewers internationally, but this has so far not been confirmed by any independent sources. The Awards show was first televised in 1953, on [[NBC]], which continued to broadcast the event until 1960 when the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] Network took over, televising the festivities through 1970, after which NBC resumed the broadcasts. ABC once again took over broadcast duties in 1976 and it is under contract to do so through the year 2020.<ref>{{Cite press release|url =http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2011/20110224b.html|title= ABC and Academy Extend Oscar Telecast Agreement|publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |date= 24 February 2011|accessdate = 24 February 2011}}</ref> After more than 60 years of being held in late March or early April, the ceremonies were moved up to late February or early March starting in 2004 to help disrupt and shorten the intense [[For Your Consideration (advertising)|lobbying and ad campaigns]] associated with [[Oscar season]] in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success of the [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship]], which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February [[sweeps]] period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into early March in deference to the [[Winter Olympics]]. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of [[Passover]] and [[Easter]], which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The Awards show holds the distinction of having won the most [[Emmys]] in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://goldderby.latimes.com/awards_goldderby/2010/07/emmys-love-for-oscars-continues-with-12-nominations.html|title = Emmys love for Oscars continues with 12 nominations |work=Los Angeles Times |author=Tom O'Neil|date= 12 July 2010|accessdate = 13 August 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100819172053/http://goldderby.latimes.com/awards_goldderby/2010/07/emmys-love-for-oscars-continues-with-12-nominations.html| archivedate= 19 August 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00&nbsp;pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, in 1999 the ceremonies were moved to Sundays at 8:30&nbsp;pm Eastern/5:30&nbsp;pm Pacific.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/08/movies/tv-notes-moving-oscar-night.html|title = TV Notes; Moving Oscar Night|work=The New York Times |author=Bill Carter|date= 8 April 1998|accessdate = 8 March 2010}}</ref> The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and that an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier.<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19980701&id=-CsiAAAAIBAJ&sjid=eqYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6637,43314 Academy Awards will move to Sunday night] Reading Eagle – 1 July 1998; From ''Google News Archive''</ref> For many years the film industry had opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office.<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1980&dat=19990319&id=sKEiAAAAIBAJ&sjid=laoFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1224,4570799 Never Say Never: Academy Awards move to Sunday] The Item – 19 March 1999. Google News Archive.</ref> On 30 March 1981, the awards ceremony was postponed for one day after [[Reagan assassination attempt|the shooting]] of President [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in Washington, D.C. In 1993, an ''In Memoriam'' segment was introduced,<ref name="fawcett">{{Cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/mar/10/oscars-farrah-fawcett|title=Farrah Fawcett:Oscars director apologises for 'In Memoriam' omission|work=The Guardian |location=UK |accessdate=8 March 2010 | location=London | first=Ben | last=Child | date=10 March 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100414020632/http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/mar/10/oscars-farrah-fawcett| archivedate= 14 April 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Sandy|last=Cohen|title=Oscar's 'In Memoriam' segment is touching to watch, painful to make |url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/movieawards/oscars/2010-03-03-oscar-memorial-segment_N.htm|agency=[[Associated Press]]|work=USA Today |date=3 March 2010|accessdate=8 March 2010}}</ref> This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2000 ceremony lasted four hours and four minutes.<ref>Ehbar, Ned (February 28, 2014). "Did you know?" ''Metro''. New York City. p. 18.</ref> In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced that winners' [[Oscar speech|acceptance speeches]] must not run past 45&nbsp;seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion.<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/feb/16/oscar-winners-speeches-cut | location=London | work=The Guardian | title=Cut … all change at Oscars as winners are given just 45 seconds to say thanks | first=Sam | last=Jones | date=16 February 2010}}</ref> The Academy has contemplated about moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Also, a January ceremony would have to compete with [[National Football League]] playoff games.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://articles.latimes.com/2010/oct/05/entertainment/la-et-oscars-20101005|title = Academy looks to move 2012 Oscar ceremony up several weeks |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |author=John Horn|date= 5 October 2010|accessdate = 28 February 2011}}</ref> == Awards ceremonies == {{main|List of Academy Awards ceremonies}} Historically, the "Oscarcast" has pulled in a bigger haul when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture trophy. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the [[70th Academy Awards]] in 1998, the year of ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'', which generated close to US$600 million at the North American box office pre-Oscars.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2004196530_oscarads23.html | work=The Seattle Times | title=Academy's red carpet big stage for advertisers | first=Meg | last=James | date=23 February 2008}}</ref> The [[76th Academy Awards]] ceremony in which ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture drew 43.56 million viewers.<ref name="usatoday_oscar">{{Cite news | url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/movieawards/oscars/2005-01-26-oscar-telecast_x.htm|work=USA Today |title=Oscars lack blockbuster to lure TV viewers | date=26 January 2005 | first=Scott | last=Bowles | accessdate=8 November 2006}}</ref> The most watched ceremony based on [[Nielsen ratings]] to date, however, was the [[42nd Academy Awards]] (Best Picture ''[[Midnight Cowboy]]'') which drew a 43.4% household rating on 7 April 1970.<ref>{{cite web|author=Justin Oppelaar |url=http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=chart_pass&charttype=chart_topshowsalltime |title=Charts and Data: Top 100 TV Shows of All Time by '&#39;Variety'&#39; |publisher=Variety.com |date=2002-10-09 |accessdate=2014-02-26}}</ref> By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings. The [[78th Academy Awards]] which awarded low-budgeted, independent film ''[[Crash (2004 film)|Crash]]'' (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%.<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2006-03-07-nielsen-analysis_x.htm | title=Low Ratings ''Crash'' Party |work=USA Today | first=Gary | last=Levin | date=7 March 2006 | accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> In 2008, the [[80th Academy Awards]] telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest rated and least watched ceremony to date, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080227/LIFE/802270307 | title=Oscar ratings worst ever |work=The Washington Post }}</ref> The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independently financed film (''[[No Country for Old Men (film)|No Country for Old Men]]''). == Venues == [[File:Hollywood Pantages Theatre 5.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]], 2008]] In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]]. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] on [[Wilshire Boulevard]] and the [[Millennium Biltmore Hotel|Biltmore Hotel]] in downtown Los Angeles. [[Grauman's Chinese Theater]] in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the [[Shrine Auditorium]] in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The [[21st Academy Awards]] in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theater at what was the Academy's headquarters on [[Melrose Avenue]] in Hollywood.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/venues.html |title = Oscars Award Venues |publisher=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |accessdate = 13 April 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061212063803/http://www.oscars.org/aboutacademyawards/venues.html |archivedate = 12 December 2006}}</ref> From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's [[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]]. With the advent of television, the 1953–1957 awards took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York first at the [[Majestic Theatre (Columbus Circle)|NBC International Theatre]] (1953) and then at the [[New Century Theatre|NBC Century Theatre]] (1954–1957), after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the [[Santa Monica Civic Auditorium]] in [[Santa Monica, California]] in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Los Angeles, this time to the [[Dorothy Chandler Pavilion]] at the [[Los Angeles Music Center|Los Angeles County Music Center]]. In 2002, the [[Dolby Theatre|Kodak Theatre]] became the permanent home of the award ceremonies. However, due to [[Eastman Kodak]]'s bankruptcy issues, this theatre was renamed the [[Dolby Theatre|Hollywood and Highland Center]] in the days preceding the 26 February 2012, awards ceremony. As of May 2012, the theatre was once again renamed – to the [[Dolby Theatre]] – after [[Dolby Laboratories]] acquired the naming rights.<ref>{{Cite news | author=Derrick J. Lang | title=Oscars venue reopens as Dolby Theatre | url=http://www.accessatlanta.com/atlanta-movies/oscars-venue-reopens-as-1456115.html?cxntlid=thbz_hm | agency=Associated Press | date=12 May 2012 | accessdate=12 May 2012}}</ref> {{clear}} == Merit categories == === Current categories === {{Columns-list|2| * [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Actor in a Supporting Role]]: since 1936 * [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress in a Leading Role]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Actress in a Supporting Role]]: since 1936 * [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated Feature]]: since 2001 * [[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]]: since 1931 * [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]: since 1948 * [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Documentary|Best Documentary Feature]]: since 1943 * [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Short|Best Documentary Short Subject]]: since 1941 * [[Academy Award for Best Film Editing|Best Film Editing]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]]: since 1947 * [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Live Action Short Film]]: since 1931 * [[Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling|Best Makeup and Hairstyling]]: since 1981 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Best Original Score]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]]: since 1934 * [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Production Design|Best Production Design]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Sound Editing|Best Sound Editing]]: since 1963 * [[Academy Award for Best Sound|Best Sound Mixing]]: since 1930 * [[Academy Award for Best Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]]: since 1939 * [[Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay|Best Adapted Screenplay]]: since 1928 * [[Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay|Best Original Screenplay]]: since 1940 }} In the first year of the awards, the Best Director award was split into two separate categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two separate categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup. Another award, entitled the [[Academy Award for Best Original Musical]], is still in the Academy rulebooks and has yet to be discontinued. However, due to continuous insufficient eligibility each year, it has not been awarded since 1984 (when ''[[Purple Rain (film)|Purple Rain]]'' won).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/rules/rule16.html |title=Music Awards &#124; Rules for the 84th Academy Awards &#124; Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences |publisher=Oscars.org |date=2012-08-24 |accessdate=2014-02-26}}</ref> === Discontinued categories === {{Columns-list|2| * [[Academy Award for Best Assistant Director|Best Assistant Director]]: 1933 to 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director, Comedy Picture]]: 1928 only * [[Academy Award for Best Dance Direction|Best Dance Direction]]: 1935 to 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Engineering Effects|Best Engineering Effects]]: 1928 only * [[Academy Award for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score|Best Original Musical or Comedy Score]]: 1995 to 1999 * [[Academy Award for Best Story|Best Original Story]]: 1928 to 1956 * [[Academy Award for Best Score – Adaptation or Treatment|Best Score – Adaptation or Treatment]]: 1962 to 1969; 1973 * [[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Color|Best Short Film – Color]]: 1936 and 1937 * [[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels|Best Short Film – Live Action – 2 Reels]]: 1936 to 1956 * [[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Novelty|Best Short Film – Novelty]]: 1932 to 1935 * [[Academy Award for Best Title Writing|Best Title Writing]]: 1928 only * [[Academy Award for Best Unique and Artistic Production|Best Unique and Artistic Quality of Production]]: 1928 only }} === Proposed categories === The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following proposed categories have been rejected: * Best Casting: rejected in 1999<!--reference to suite101.com removed, blacklisted site--> * Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://www.filmschoolrejects.com/opinions/its-time-to-create-an-oscar-for-stunt-coordinators-etrav.php |publisher=Film School Rejects | title=It’s Time to Create an Oscar For Stunt Coordinators | date=1 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url = http://actionfest.com/stunt-legends-man-of-action-jack-gills-quest-to-gain-academy-award-recognition-for-stunt-professionals-part-2/ |publisher=Action Fest | title=Jack Gill Interview | date=4 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/race/academy-votes-creating-oscar-category-202123 | work=The Hollywood Reporter | first=Jonathan | last=Handel | title=Academy Votes Against Creating Oscar Category for Stunt Coordinators | date=15 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=http://theenvelope.latimes.com/movies/env-fi-stunts4aug04,0,3864314.story?coll=env-movies | title=One stunt they've been unable to pull off|work=Los Angeles Times | author=Michael Hiltzik | date=4 August 2005 | accessdate=13 April 2007}}</ref> * Best Title Design: rejected in 1999<!--reference to suite101.com removed, blacklisted site--> == Special categories == The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on a consistent annual basis. === Current special categories === * [[Academy Honorary Award]]: since 1929 * [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]]: since 1931 * [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]]: since 1981 * [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]]: since 1956 * [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]: since 1938 === Discontinued special categories=== * [[Academy Juvenile Award]]: 1934 to 1960 * [[Special Achievement Academy Award|Academy Special Achievement Award]]: 1972 to 1995 == Critical reception and review == Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "[[Oscar season]]". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than quality. [[William Friedkin]], an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself".<ref>{{Cite AV media |people=Friedkin, William (Director) |date=24 February 2009|title=Director William Friedkin at the Hudson Union Society |url=http://fora.tv/2009/02/24/Director_William_Friedkin_at_the_Hudson_Union_Society#William_Friedkin_Says_Oscars_Simply_a_Promotion_Scheme |accessdate=11 March 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090310081013/http://fora.tv/2009/02/24/Director_William_Friedkin_at_the_Hudson_Union_Society| archivedate= 10 March 2009| deadurl= no}}</ref> In addition, some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was [[Dudley Nichols]] (Best Writing in 1935 for ''[[The Informer (1935 film)|The Informer]]''). Nichols boycotted the [[8th Academy Awards]] ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild.<ref name="DYK">{{cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp|title=The Oscars Did You Know?|accessdate=18 June 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090623000022/http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp| archivedate= 23 June 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> [[George C. Scott]] became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'') at the [[43rd Academy Awards]] ceremony. Scott described it as a 'meat parade', saying 'I don't want any part of it."<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/obituaries/455563.stm |publisher=BBC News | title=George C Scott: The man who refused an Oscar | date=23 September 1999}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904789,00.html | work=Time | title=Show Business: Meat Parade | date=8 March 1971}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp |title=Fast Facts – Did You Know? |publisher=Biography.com |date=16 May 1929 |accessdate=6 February 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100210075430/http://www.biography.com/oscars/oscars_didyouknow.jsp| archivedate= 10 February 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The third was [[Marlon Brando]], who refused his award (Best Actor in 1972 for ''[[The Godfather]]''), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the [[45th Academy Awards]] ceremony, Brando sent [[Sacheen Littlefeather]] to read a 15-page speech detailing his criticisms.<ref name=DYK/> Tim Dirks, editor of [[American Movie Classics|AMC's]] [[filmsite.org]], has written of the Academy Awards, {{quote|Unfortunately, the critical worth, artistic vision, cultural influence, and innovative qualities of many films are not given the same voting weight. Especially since the 1980s, moneymaking "formula-made" blockbusters with glossy production values have often been crowd-pleasing titans (and Best Picture winners), but they haven't necessarily been great films with depth or critical acclaim by any measure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmsite.org/oscars.html |title=Academy Awards – The Oscars |accessdate=4 October 2009}}</ref>}} Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies, and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. the last three months of the calendar year. This has led to the coining of the term '[[Oscar bait]]', describing such movies. Overall, the Academy appears to go through periods of rewarding a certain type of film: war-themed movies in the early 1940s; 'social issue' dramas in the late 1940s, late 1960s, and mid-2000s; musicals and historical epics in the early-to-mid-1960s; family melodramas and biographical epics in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s; atypical genres (movies formerly considered "[[B movies]]") in the early 1970s and 1990s; romantic historical epic dramas in the late 1990s and early 2000s; independent violent movies from critically acclaimed directors in the late 2000s; and 20th century historical movies in the 2010s.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} This has led at times to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g. by favoring 'Oscar bait' over audience favorites, or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nypost.com/p/entertainment/movies/have_the_oscars_jumped_the_shark_LLhBrvPY35EnSH0iQzrqRJ |title=Have the Oscars jumped the shark? |accessdate=24 January 2012}}</ref> The Academy appears to compensate by nominating these movies in other categories, e.g. effects and editing awards for science-fiction and action movies, screenplay and supporting acting nominations for comedies, and directing, cinematography, and foreign language nominations for critically acclaimed [[art film]]s. Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for sentimental reasons,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Taylor,+Elizabeth |title=Taylor, Elizabeth |accessdate=4 October 2009}}</ref> personal popularity,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://incontention.com/?p=1045 |title=What’s the worst Best Actor choice of all time? |accessdate=4 October 2009}}</ref> atonement for past mistakes,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://bennylabamba.com/being-an-oscar-voter |title=Being an Oscar voter *doesn't* mean never having to say you're sorry - Los Angeles Times |accessdate=4 October 2009 | publisher=BennyLabamba.com}}</ref> or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.<ref>{{cite book| last = Levy| first = Emanuel| title = All about Oscar: the history and politics of the Academy Awards – The Career Oscars| url = http://books.google.com/?id=dH2Lb_YhIhAC&pg=PA268| accessdate = 4 October 2009| year = 2003| publisher = Burns & Oates| isbn = 978-0-8264-1452-6 }}</ref> == Associated events == The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards ceremony: * Nominees luncheon * [[Governors Awards]] * The 25th [[Independent Spirit Awards]] (in 2010), usually held in Santa Monica the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to [[L.A. Live]]. * The annual "Night Before," traditionally held at the [[Beverly Hills Hotel]], begun in 2002 and generally known as ''the ''party of the season, benefits the [[Motion Picture and Television Fund]], which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the [[San Fernando Valley]]. * [[Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party]] airs the awards live at the nearby [[Pacific Design Center]]. * The Governors' Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue. In 2012, the three-course meal was replaced by appetizers. * The Vanity Fair after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, since 2009 has been at the [[Sunset Tower]]. == Presenter and performer gifts == It has been a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In later years these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners.<ref name=ABCGiftBag>{{cite web|last=Valenti|first=Catherine|title=No Oscar? How About a Gift Bag?|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id=86683|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=11 March 2014}}</ref> The total value of these gifts can reach into the 10s of thousands of dollars. In 2014 the value was reported to be as high as US$ 80,000.<ref name=CBSGiftBag>{{cite web|last=Peterson|first=Kim|title=Oscars' gift bag has $80,000 worth of swag|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/oscars-gift-bag-has-80000-worth-of-swag/|publisher=CBS News|accessdate=11 March 2014}}</ref> The value has risen to the point where the U.S. [[Internal Revenue Service]] issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status.<ref name=IRSGiftBag>{{cite web|last=Staff|title=IRS Statement on Oscar Goodie Bags|url=http://www.irs.gov/uac/IRS-Statement-on-Oscar-Goodie-Bags|publisher=IRS.gov|accessdate=11 March 2014}}</ref> The assortment of gifts varies significantly. Oscar gift bags have included deluxe vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at any [[Morton's The Steakhouse|Morton's steakhouse]] worldwide, [[videophone]]s, a four-night stay at Rosewood's [[Badrutt's Palace Hotel]] - a luxury hotel in [[St. Moritz, Switzerland]], Swiss-made watches, Jan Lewis Designs bangle bracelets, luxury vacation packages to the Canadian Rockies, spa treatments, bottles of luxury vodka, maple salad dressing, and weight-loss gummie candy.<ref name=ABCGiftBag/><ref name=ABCGiftBag2>{{cite web|last=Valiente|first=Alexa|title=What Surprising Freebies Are Inside the 2014 Oscar Nominees' Gift Bags|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/surprising-freebies-inside-2014-oscar-nominees-gift-bags/story?id=22518285|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=11 March 2014}}</ref><ref name=VarietyGiftBag>{{cite web|last=Bacardi|first=Francesca|title=Oscar ‘Losers’ Become Winners with Distinctive Assets Gift Bags|url=http://variety.com/2014/film/news/oscar-losers-become-winners-with-distinctive-assets-gift-bags-1201100762/|publisher=Variety|accessdate=11 March 2014}}</ref> Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them; in 2014 the adult products retailer [[Adam & Eve (company)|Adam & Eve]] had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included [[Judith Hoag]], [[Carolyn Hennesy]], [[Kate Linder]], [[Chris Mulkey]], [[Jim O'Heir]], and [[NBA]] star [[John Salley]].<ref name=AandEOscarGifts>{{cite web|last=Staff|title=Adam & Eve Had Secret Room Gifting Suite for Oscars' Celebs|url=http://business.avn.com/articles/novelty/Adam-Eve-Had-Secret-Room-Gifting-Suite-for-Oscars-Celebs-551833.html|publisher=Adult Video News|accessdate=11 March 2014}}</ref> == TV ratings and ad prices == 2006-2011 results are Live+SD, all previous years are Live viewing<ref name = tvbythenumbers/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Year !! Viewers (Millions)<ref name = tvbythenumbers>{{cite web |url=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2012/02/24/with-no-blockbusters-up-for-best-picture-expect-academy-awards-viewership-to-fall-ratings-history-your-guess-for-this-year-poll/120239/|title=With No Blockbusters Up For Best Picture, Expect 'Academy Awards' Viewership To Fall; Ratings History + Your Guess For This Year (Poll)|work=TV by the Numbers |first=Sara |last=Bibel |date=February 24, 2012 |accessdate=March 4, 2014}}</ref> !! Ad Price<ref name = tvbythenumbers/><ref name = kantarmedia>{{cite web |url=http://kantarmediana.com/intelligence/press/advertising-vitality-of-the-academy-awards|title=Kantar Media Reports On The Advertising Vitality Of The Academy Awards - Historical Advertising Data Showcases Ad Pricing Trends and Top Marketers; Super Bowl Overlap Increases as Sales Rise |work=[[Kantar_Group#Kantar_Media|Kantar Media]] |first= |last= |date=February 13, 2013 |accessdate=March 4, 2014}}</ref> |- | 2014 || 43.74<ref>{{cite news |first=Rick |last=Kissell |title=Oscars on ABC Draw Largest Audience in 10 Years |url=http://variety.com/2014/tv/ratings/early-ratings-oscars-look-to-be-up-slightly-from-last-year-1201124513/ |work=Variety |date=March 3, 2014 |accessdate=March 4, 2014}}</ref> || $1.8 million - $1.9 million<ref name = adprices>{{cite news |first= Brian|last=Steinberg |title=Oscar Ad Prices Hit All-Time High as ABC Sells Out 2014 Telecast (EXCLUSIVE) |url=http://variety.com/2013/tv/news/oscar-ad-prices-hit-all-time-high-as-abc-sells-out-2014-telecast-exclusive-1200778642/ |work=Variety |date=March 3, 2014 |accessdate=March 4, 2014}}</ref> |- | 2013 || 40.376<ref name = nielsen>{{cite web |url=http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/newswire/2013/tops-of-2013-tv-and-social-media.html|title=Tops of 2013: TV and Social Media|work=TV by the Numbers |first=Sara |last=Bibel |date=December 12, 2013 |accessdate=March 4, 2014}}</ref> || $1.65 million and $1.8 million<ref name = adprices/> |- | 2012 || 39.46<ref name=var1>{{cite news|url=http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118050758?categoryid=14&cs=1&nid=2562|title=Crystal, social media fuel Oscar ratings | last = Kissell | first=Rick | date=February 27, 2012 |accessdate=April 26, 2012 | work = Variety |publisher=PMC}}</ref> || $1.610 million |- | 2011 || 37.919 || $1,368,400 |- | 2010 || 41.699 || $1,126,700 |- | 2009 || 36.310 || $1.3 million<ref name = adprices/> |- | 2008 || 32.006 || $1.82 million<ref name = adprices/> |- | 2007 || 40.172 || $1,665,800 |- | 2006 || 38.939 || $1,646,800 |- | 2005 || 42.139 || $1,503,000 |- | 2004 || 43.531 || $1,503,100 |- | 2003 || 33.043 || $1,345,800 |- | 2002 || 41.782 || $1,290,000 |- | 2001 || 42.944 || $1,450,000 |- | 2000 || 46.333 || $1,305,000 |- | 1999 || 45.615 || $1,000,000 |- | 1998 || 55.249 || $950,000 |- | 1997 || 40.075 || $850,000 |- | 1996 || 44.867 || $795,000 |- | 1995 || 48.279 || $700,000 |- | 1994 || 45.083 || $643,500 |- | 1993 || 45.735 || $607,800 |- | 1992 || 44.406 || Not available |- | 1991 || 42.727 || Not available |- | 1990 || 40.375 || $450,000 |- | 1989 || 42.619 || $375,000 |- | 1988 || 42.227 || $360,000 |- | 1987 || 37.190 || $335,000 |- | 1986 || 37.757 || $320,000 |- | 1985 || 38.855 || $315,000 |- | 1984 || 42.051 || $275,000 |- | 1983 || 53.235 || $245,000 |- | 1982 || 46.245 || Not available |- | 1981 || 39.919 || Not available |- | 1980 || 48.978 || Not available |- | 1979 || 46.301 || Not available |- | 1978 || 48.501 || Not available |- | 1977 || 39.719 || Not available |- | 1976 || 46.751 || Not available |- | 1975 || 48.127 || Not available |- | 1975 || 44.712 || Not available |} == See also == {{Wikipedia books|1=Academy Awards|3=Academy Awards for Best Picture}} * [[Academy Awards pre-show]] * [[Oscar speech]] * [[Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party]] * [[Oscar season]] * [[Film awards seasons]] * [[Berlin International Film Festival]] * [[Cannes Film Festival]] * [[San Sebastián International Film Festival]] * [[Venice Film Festival]] {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} '''Lists:''' * [[List of Academy Award records]] * [[List of Academy Award-winning families]] * [[List of Academy Award-winning films]] * [[List of Academy Awards ceremonies]] * [[List of Academy Award trophies on public display]] * [[List of actors nominated for two Academy Awards in the same year]] * [[List of actors who have appeared in multiple Best Picture Academy Award winners]] * [[List of Best Picture milestones]] * [[List of Big Five Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of fictitious Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of foreign-language films nominated for Academy Awards]] * [[List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of people who have won multiple Academy Awards in a single year]] * [[List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of presenters of Best Picture Academy Award]] * [[List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees]] '''Nationality:''' * [[List of Academy Award winners and nominees from Commonwealth countries]] * [[List of Australian Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of Brazilian Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of English Academy Award nominees and winners]] * [[List of French Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of Italian Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of Latin American Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of New Zealand Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of Nordic Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of Polish Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of Spanish Academy Award winners and nominees]] {{col-break}} '''Race/Ethnicity:''' * [[List of African-American Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[List of Asian Academy Award winners and nominees]] * [[Lists of Hispanic Academy Award winners and nominees by country]] '''General:''' * [[AACTA Awards]] (Australian equivalent) * [[Africa Movie Academy Awards|AMAA]] (Nigerian equivalent) * [[Amanda Award]] (Norwegian equivalent) * [[Argentine Film Critics Association]] (Argentine equivalent) * [[Ariel Award]]s (Mexican equivalent) * [[British Academy Film Awards|BAFTA]] (British equivalent) * [[Canadian Screen Awards]] (Canadian equivalent) * [[César Award]]s (French equivalent) * [[David di Donatello|David di Donatello Awards]] (Italian equivalent) * [[Golden Horse Film Festival and Awards]] (Chinese/Taiwanese equivalent) * [[Goya Awards]] (Spanish equivalent) * [[Guldbagge Awards]] (Swedish equivalent) * [[Japan Academy Prize (film)|Japanese Academy Awards]] (Japanese equivalent) * [[Deutscher Filmpreis|Lola Awards]] (German equivalent) * [[Magritte Award]]s (Belgian equivalent) * [[National Film Awards]] (Indian equivalent) * [[List of years in film]] {{col-end}} {{Portal bar|Academy Award|Film|Los Angeles}} == Notes == {{reflist|30em}} == References == * Brokaw, Lauren (2010). [http://thedailytruffle.com/2010/03/oscar-week-parties-the-weekly-juice-oscar-edition/ "Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars"]. Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle. * {{cite book| last = Cotte| first = Oliver| title = Secrets of Oscar-winning animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations| year = 2007| publisher = Focal Press| isbn = 978-0-240-52070-4 }} * {{cite book| last1 = Kinn| first1 = Gail| last2 = Piazza| first2 = Jim| title = The Academy Awards: The Complete History of Oscar| year = 2002| publisher = Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers| isbn = 978-1-57912-240-9 }} * {{cite book| last = Levy| first = Emanuel| title = All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards| year = 2003| publisher = Burns & Oates| isbn = 978-0-8264-1452-6 }} * Wright, Jon (2007). ''The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night''. Thomas Publishing, Inc. == External links == {{Wiktionary|Academy Awards}} {{Commons category|Academy Awards}} <!-- Please do not list any more fan sites here as per [[WP:NOT]] --> * [http://oscarslive2014.com Academy Awards Live Stream] * {{Official website|1=http://www.oscars.org/}} * [http://www.oscar.com/ Oscar.com]—official Academy Award ceremony site. * [http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/AdvancedSearchInput.jsp Official Academy Awards Database] (searchable) * {{dmoz|Arts/Movies/Awards/Academy_Awards|Academy Awards}}. * [http://www.time.com/time/archive/collections/0,21428,c_oscars,00.shtml "Oscar Greats"] at ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine. * [http://www.the-news-daily.com/Oscars Oscars] latest news. {{Academy Awards}} {{Academy Awards lists}} {{CinemaoftheUS}} {{National Cinema Awards}} [[Category:Academy Awards]] [[Category:American film awards]] [[Category:Awards established in 1929]] {{Link FA|hr}} 91ctbk8zc15oqtrt335zu20n9gdse4t wikitext text/x-wiki 0 325 160875351 61398398 2007-09-28T08:27:52Z Closedmouth 372693 R from other capitalisation #REDIRECT [[Action film]]{{R from other capitalisation}} 5k8i2fnf0ikroxdc157isw1vs0bp8ed wikitext text/x-wiki 0 330 561898568 539044257 2013-06-28T00:25:11Z ChrisGualtieri 16333418 General Fixes + DMY/MDY Tagging on Date O/I/A using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{No footnotes|date=February 2012}} {{Infobox film | name = Actrius | image = | alt = <!-- see WP:ALT --> | caption = | director = [[Ventura Pons]] | producer = Ventura Pons | writer = Ventura Pons<br> [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]] | starring = [[Núria Espert]]<br> [[Rosa Maria Sardà]]<br> [[Anna Lizaran]]<br>[[Mercè Pons]] | music = [[Carles Cases]] | cinematography = | editing = | studio = [[Els Films de la Rambla, S.A.]] | distributor = | released = {{Film date|1996|||}}<!-- {{Film date|Year|Month|Day|Location}} --> | runtime = 90 minutes | country = Spain | language = Catalan | budget = | gross = }} '''''Actrius''''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Actresses'') is a 1996 film directed by [[Ventura Pons]]. In the film, there are no male actors and the four leading actresses dubbed themselves in the Castilian version. ==Synopsis== In order to prepare the role of an important old actress, a theatre student interviews three actresses who were her pupils: an international diva (Glòria Marc, played by [[Núria Espert]]), a television star (Assumpta Roca, played by [[Rosa Maria Sardà]]) and a dubbing director (Maria Caminal, played by [[Anna Lizaran]]). ==External links== *{{IMDb title|0115462|Actrius}} *[http://www.venturapons.com/filmografia/actrices.html Ficha técnica] [[Category:1996 films]] [[Category:1990s drama films]] [[Category:Spanish films]] [[Category:Catalan-language films]] [[Category:Films set in Barcelona]] [[Category:Barcelona in fiction]] [[Category:Films directed by Ventura Pons]] {{1990s-drama-film-stub}} {{Spain-film-stub}} 9itmv7icc8y83mfyxyb5quyapt253hx wikitext text/x-wiki 0 332 593600897 591643741 2014-02-02T16:46:37Z John 764861 /* Adaptations */clean up, [[WP:MOSICON|deflag]], [[WP:OVERLINK|overlink]], replaced: [[Canada]] → Canada, [[Norway]] → Norway using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox book|<!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Novels or Wikipedia:WikiProject_Books --> | name = '''Animalia''' | image = [[Image:Animalia.jpg|240px]] | caption = | author = [[Graeme Base]] | illustrator = [[Graeme Base]] | country = Australia | language = English | genre = [[Picture books]] | publisher = [[Penguin Books|Penguin Group (Australia)]] | release_date = 1986 | media_type = Print (hardcover) | pages = 32 | isbn = 0-810-91868-4 | oclc = }} <!--{{Infobox publication|image=Animalia.jpg|caption=Book cover}}--> '''''Animalia''''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]]. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996 and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over three million copies have been sold.<ref>{{cite web|last=Puffin Books|title=Animalia 25th Anniversary Edition|url=http://www.puffin.com.au/products/9780670076673/animalia-25th-anniversary-edition|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996 with an embossed gold jacket.<ref>{{cite web|last=ABE Books|title=Animalia (Numbered and Signed anniversary edition)|url=http://www.abebooks.com/Animalia-Numbered-Signed-Anniversary-Edition-Base/3201558151/bd|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> ==Synopsis== ''Animalia'' is an [[alliteration|alliterative]] [[alphabet]] book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture. ==Related products== [[Penguin Books]] published an ''Animalia'' [[colouring book]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|last=Penguin Books|title=Animalia Colouring Book|url=http://www.penguin.com.au/products/9781405904674/animalia-colouring-book|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> [[Abrams Books|H. N. Abrams]] also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year.<ref>{{cite web|last=LibraryThing.com|title=Animalia 2008 Coloring Calendar|url=http://www.librarything.com/work/6090521|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> H. N. Abrams published ''The Animalia Wall Frieze'', a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter.<ref>{{cite web|last=BookFinder.com|title=The Animalia Wall Frieze|url=http://www.bookfinder.com/dir/i/The_Animalia_Wall_Frieze/0810924757/|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.<ref>{{cite web|last=Amazon.com|title=Animalia 300-piece jigsaw puzzle|url=http://www.amazon.com/Animalia-Graeme-Piece-Jigsaw-Puzzle/sim/B000R2ZUCE/2|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> ==Adaptations== A [[Animalia (TV series)|television series]] was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and [[Venezuela]]. It also airs on [[Minimax (TV channel)|Minimax]] for the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]. And recently in [[Greece]] on the channel [[ET1 (Greece)|ET1]]. The [[Australian Children's Television Foundation]] released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use.<ref>{{cite web|last=Curriculum Press|title=Animalia - Primary teaching resource|url=http://www.curriculumpress.edu.au/main/goproduct/13167|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for [[iPad]] and [[iPhone]]/[[iPod Touch]].<ref>{{cite web|last=MyBookCorner.com.au|title=Animalia - Anniversary Edition|url=http://www.mybookcorner.com.au/apps/611-animalia-anniversary-edition|accessdate=7 June 2013}}</ref> ==Awards== ''Animalia'' won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yabba.org|title=Award Winners - 1986 through 2011|url=http://yabba.org.au/award-winners-1986-through-2011/|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Children's Book Council of Australia]] designated ''Animalia'' a 1987 [[Children's Book of the Year Award: Picture Book|Picture Book of the Year]]: Honour Book.<ref>{{cite web|last=The Children's Book Council of Australia|title=Winners and Commended Books 1980 - 1989|url=http://cbca.org.au/8089.htm|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named ''Animalia'' the 1988 Picture Book Winner.<ref>{{cite web|last=KOALA New South Wales|title=Complete list of KOALA winners 1987 to 2012|url=http://www.koalansw.org.au/storage/Complete%20list%20winners%201987%20to%202012.pdf|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.graemebase.com Graeme Base's official website] * [http://www.animalia.tv Animalia The Television Series official website] * [http://www.thelittlebigbookclub.com.au/sites/thelittlebigbookclub.com.au/files/files/title_resource/learning_time_2-3_years_july2011.pdf A Learning Time activity guide] for ''Animalia'' created by The Little Big Book Club {{Graeme Base}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Animalia (Book)}} [[Category:Children's picture books]] [[Category:Alphabet books]] [[Category:1986 books]] [[Category:Picture books by Graeme Base]] [[Category:Puzzle books]] 40okrliy0iiyi4i91ejd7hr845qp6co wikitext text/x-wiki 0 334 601605140 593371929 2014-03-28T04:12:21Z Voidxor 329764 /* top */ Mv citations to end of clause {{Refimprove|date=July 2012}} '''International Atomic Time''' ('''TAI''', from the French name '''Temps atomique international'''<ref>Temps atomique 1975</ref>) is a high-precision atomic [[coordinate time|coordinate]] [[time standard]] based on the notional passage of [[proper time]] on [[Earth]]'s [[geoid]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1986CeMec..38..155G |title=Is the International Atomic Time TAI a coordinate time or a proper time? |publisher=Adsabs.harvard.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-05-08}}</ref> It is the basis for [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface, and for [[Terrestrial Time]], which is used for astronomical calculations. Since 30 June 2012 when the last [[leap second]] was added,<ref name="bulletinc">{{cite web|url= ftp://hpiers.obspm.fr/iers/bul/bulc/bulletinc.43 |title= Bulletin C 43: UTC time step on the 1st of July 2012 [sic] | publisher= [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service|IERS EOP PC]], [[Paris Observatory|Observatoire de Paris]] |accessdate=31 January 2014}}</ref> TAI has been exactly 35 seconds ahead of UTC. The 35 seconds results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 25 [[leap second]]s in UTC since 1972. Time coordinates on the TAI scales are conventionally specified using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both [[Julian Date]]s and the [[Gregorian calendar]] are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with [[Universal Time]] at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth. ==Operation== TAI as a time scale is a weighted average of the time kept by over 200 [[atomic clock]]s in over 50 national laboratories worldwide.{{sfn|Time|n.d.}} The clocks are compared using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] signals and [[two-way satellite time and frequency transfer]].<ref>Circular T 2009.</ref> Due to the averaging it is far more stable than any clock would be alone (see [[signal averaging]] for a discussion). The majority of the clocks are [[Atomic clock|caesium clocks]]; the definition of the [[International System of Units|SI]] second is written in terms of [[caesium]].<ref>McCarthy &Seidelmann 2009, 207, 214</ref> The participating institutions each broadcast, in [[real-time data|real time]], a frequency signal with [[timecode]]s, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form ''UTC(NPL)'' in the UTC form, where ''NPL'' in this case identifies the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK]]. The TAI form may be denoted ''TAI(NPL)''. The latter is not to be confused with ''TA(NPL)'', which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else. The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible.<ref>"Time" n.d.</ref> This combined time scale is published monthly in [ftp://ftp2.bipm.fr/pub/tai/publication/cirt/ Circular T], and is the [[Canonical form|canonical]] TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC-UTC(''k'') (equivalent to TAI-TAI(''k'')) for each participating institution ''k''. (The same circular also gives tables of TAI-TA(''k''), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales.) Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight it is possible to discover errors in TAI, and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Doing so does not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT). ==History== Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL)]]. The "Greenwich Atomic" (GA) scale began in 1955 at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]]. The [[International Time Bureau]] (BIH) began a time scale, T_m or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of [[VLF]] radio signals. The [[United States Naval Observatory]] began the A.1 scale 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, [[Boulder, Colorado]]. Both the BIH scale and A.1 was defined by an [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]] at the beginning of 1958: it was set to read Julian Date 2436204.5 (1 January 1958 00:00:00) at the corresponding [[UT2]] instant. The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1963 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969.<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann 2009, 199&ndash;201.</ref> This synchronisation was inevitably imperfect, depending as it did on the [[astronomy|astronomical]] realisation of UT2. At the time, UT2 as published by various observatories differed by several hundredths of a second. In 1961, UTC began. UTC is a discontinuous time scale composed from segments that are linear transformations of atomic time, the discontinuities being arranged so that UTC approximated [[UT2]] until the end of 1971, and [[UT1]] thereafter. This was a compromise arrangement for a broadcast time scale: a linear transformation of the BIH's atomic time meant that the time scale was stable and internationally synchronised, while approximating UT1 means that tasks such as [[navigation]] which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by public time broadcasts.<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann 2009, 227&ndash;9.</ref> The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967, and in 1971 the name International Atomic Time (TAI) was assigned to a time scale based on SI seconds with no leap seconds.<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann 2009, 202&ndash;4.</ref> During this time, irregularities in the atomic time were detected and corrected. In 1967 it was suggested that nearby masses caused clocks to operate at different rates, but this was disproven in 1968.<ref>William Markowitz. "Nondependence of Frequency on Mass: A Differential Experiment" [[doi:10.1126/science.162.3860.1387]]</ref> In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to [[gravitational time dilation]], and the combined TAI scale therefore corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at [[mean sea level]] (the geoid). Because the clocks had been on average well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed down, by about 10⁻¹². The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name ''EAL'' (''Echelle Atomique Libre'', meaning ''Free Atomic Scale'').<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann, 215.</ref> The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for [[Barycentric Coordinate Time]] (TCB), [[Geocentric Coordinate Time]] (TCG), and [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT). All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. (The offset is to provide continuity with the older [[Ephemeris Time]].) TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184&nbsp;s.<ref>McCarthy & Seidelmann, 218&ndash;9.</ref> The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated "In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC."<ref>*{{cite web |title=CCTF 09-27 |url=http://www.bipm.org/cc/CCTF/Allowed/18/CCTF_09-27_note_on_UTC-ITU-R.pdf |date=3 September 2007 |publisher=International Bureau of Weights and Measures}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Time and frequency transfer]] * [[Clock synchronization]] * [[Network Time Protocol]] * [[Precision Time Protocol]], a related though separate technology * [[Magneto-optical trap]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== *{{cite web |title=International Atomic Time |url=http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/tai.html |date=2013 |publisher=International Bureau of Weights and Measures}} *{{cite web |url=ftp://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/tai-utc.dat |title=History of TAI−UTC |publisher=Time Service Dept., United States Naval Observatory |year=2009 |accessdate=4 January 2010}} *{{cite web | url = http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/tai.html | title = International Atomic Time | accessdate =22 February 2013 | publisher = [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]]}} *{{Cite book |authorlink1=Dennis McCarthy (scientist) |last1=McCarthy |first1=D. D. |last2=Seidelmann |first2=P. K. |title=TIME&mdash;From Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics |year=2009 |isbn=978-3-527-40780-4 |publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA |location=Weinheim}} *{{cite web | ref = {{sfnRef|Time|n.d.}} |url = http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/ |date = n.d. |accessdate = 22 May 2013 |publisher = International Bureau of Weights and Measures |title = Time}} ==External links== * [http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI] * [http://www.npl.co.uk/time/ Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK] * [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website] * [http://www.nist.gov/physlab/div847/faq.cfm NIST Time and Frequency FAQs] * [http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/timescales.html History of time scales] * [http://physics.nist.gov/TechAct/Div847/div847.html NIST cesium fountain standard] * [http://inms-ienm.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/research/optical_frequency_projects_e.html#femtosecond Optical frequency comb for metrology and timekeeping] * [http://jjy.nict.go.jp/index-e.html Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan] * [ftp://ftp2.bipm.org/pub/tai/scale/timeservices09.pdf Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI TIME DISSEMINATION SERVICES, AUTHORITIES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE TIME DISSEMINATION SERVICES] {{Time Topics}} {{Time measurement and standards}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[Category:Time scales]] 9wcibx65ky20pabrh05wm08d1gay9bv wikitext text/x-wiki 0 336 599727055 598594719 2014-03-15T14:43:02Z 128.187.97.22 word choice {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Belisaire demandant l'aumone Jacques-Louis David.jpg|thumb|325px|Giving [[alms]] to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.]] '''Altruism''' or '''selflessness''' is the principle or practice of concern for the [[Quality of life|welfare]] of others. It is a traditional [[virtue]] in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of "others" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. Altruism or selflessness is the opposite of [[selfishness]]. Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of [[loyalty]]. Pure altruism consists of sacrificing something for someone other than the self (e.g. sacrificing time, energy or possessions) with no expectation of any compensation or benefits, either direct, or indirect (e.g., receiving recognition for the act of giving). Much debate exists as to whether ''"true"'' altruism is possible. The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an [[intrinsic]] reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether [[Motivation#Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as "benefits." The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]]'' may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with [[ethical egoism|egoism]], which is defined as acting to the benefit of one's self. ==The notion of altruism== The concept has a long history in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding [[sociologist]] and [[philosopher of science]], [[Auguste Comte]], and has become a major topic for [[psychologists]] (especially [[evolutionary psychology]] researchers), [[evolutionary biologists]], and [[ethology|ethologists]]. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them. == Individual variations == A certain individual may behave altruistically in one case and egoistically in another situation. However, some individuals tend to behave more altruistically, while others tend to behave more egoistically. Altruism may be considered a general attitude to the point where altruism has been considered as a [[Phenotypic trait|trait]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rushton |first1=J.P. |author2=Chrisjohn, R. D. and Fekken, G. C. |title=The altruistic personality and the self-report altruism scale|journal=Personality and Individual Differences |year=1981 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=293–302 |url=http://www.subjectpool.com/ed_teach/y3project/Rushton1981THE_ALTRUISTIC_PERSONALITY.pdf |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(81)90084-2}}</ref> A 1986 study estimated that altruism was half-[[Heritability|inherited]].<ref group="notes">The study covered 5 related traits, giving a broad heritability estimate of 56% for altruism, but then approximated all to 50%, and raised the maximum-likelihood heritability to 60% after corrections for unreliability.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rushton|first1=Jean Philippe |last2=Fulker|first2= D. W. |last3=Neale|first3=M. C. |last4=Nias|first4=D. K. B. |last5=Eysenck|first5=H. J.|title=Altruism and aggression: The heritability of individual differences|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=1986|volume=50|issue=6|pages=1192–1198|pmid=3723334|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1192 }}</ref> Another study, by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was published in 2009. Also based on the twin design, the new study estimated that genetic differences accounted for approximately 20% of individual variations.<ref group="notes">The study generally refers to the trait studied as "giving". It uses the word "altruism" too once.</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last1=Cesarini|first1=David |last2=Dawes|first2=Christopher |last3=Johannesson|first3=Magnus |last4=Lichtenstein|first4=Paul |last5=Wallace|first5=Björn| title=Genetic Variation in Preferences for Giving and Risk Taking|journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics|date=May 2009|volume=124|issue=2|pages=809–842|url=https://files.nyu.edu/dac12/public/CesariniQJE2009.pdf| doi=10.1162/qjec.2009.124.2.809}}</ref> ==Scientific viewpoints== ===Anthropology=== [[Marcel Mauss]]'s book ''The Gift'' contains a passage: "Note on alms." This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: <blockquote>Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.</blockquote> * Compare [[altruism (ethics)|Altruism (ethics) – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice]]. * Compare [[alms|explanation of alms in various scriptures]]. ===Evolutionary explanations=== {{Main|Altruism in animals|Evolution of morality|Evolutionary ethics}} [[File:Manner of Francis Wheatley, Giving alms to beggar children.jpg|thumb|180px|Giving alms to beggar children]] In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[social evolution]], altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor.<ref name="Bell2008">{{cite book| last = Bell| first = Graham| title = Selection: the mechanism of evolution| year = 2008| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford| isbn = 0-19-856972-6| pages = 367–368 }}</ref> In [[evolutionary psychology]] this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, [[Tip (gratuity)|tipping]], courtship gifts, production of [[public good]]s, and [[environmentalism]].<ref name="AEP1">Pat Barcaly. The evolution of charitable behaviour and the power of reputation. In {{cite doi|10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001|noedit}}</ref> Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from [[evolutionary game theory]] a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies. Some of the proposed mechanisms are: * [[Kin selection]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Biological Altruism|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/#2|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Okasha|first=Samir|accessdate=13 May 2011}}</ref> That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helping behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number the perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.<ref name=AEP1/> * Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social [[ingroup]]s suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] threatens to kill the entire ingroup.<ref name=AEP1/> * [[Reciprocal altruism]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/406755|last1=Trivers|first1=R.L.|year=1971|title=The evolution of reciprocal altruism|journal=Quarterly Review of Biology|volume=46|pages=35–57}}</ref> See also [[Reciprocity (evolution)]]. ** Direct [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.7466396 |author=R Axelrod and WD Hamilton |title=The evolution of cooperation |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=211 |issue=4489 |date=27 March 1981 |pages=1390–1396 |pmid=7466396 |bibcode = 1981Sci...211.1390A}}</ref> Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective [[tit for tat]] strategy is one [[game theory|game theoretic]] example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.<ref name=AEP1/> ::One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others and this effect tend to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness such as calling it a "Community Game" instead of a "Wall Street Game."<ref name=AEP1/> ::A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize so people become more helpful toward others in general after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.<ref name=AEP1/> ::People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better assessments of cooperativeness or due to exchange of promises. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust, instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger scale competitions such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.<ref name=AEP1/> ** Indirect reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature04131|author=Martin Nowak & Karl Sigmund|title=Evolution of indirect reciprocity|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=437|issue=27|date=October 2005|pages=1291–1298|pmid=16251955|bibcode = 2005Natur.437.1291N }}</ref> The avoidance of poor reciprocators and cheaters causes a person's [[reputation]] to become very important. A person with a good reputation for reciprocity have a higher chance of receiving help even from persons they have had no direct interactions with previously.<ref name=AEP1/> ** [[Strong reciprocity]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=[[Herbert Gintis]]|title=Strong Reciprocity and Human Sociality|journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]]|volume=206|issue=2|date=September 2000|pmid=10966755|pages=169–179|doi=10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111}}</ref> A form of reciprocity where some individuals seem to spend more resources on cooperating and punishing than would be most beneficial as predicted by several established theories of altruism. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations as well as criticisms regarding its existence. ** Pseudo-reciprocity.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2003|title=Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation, Chapter 11|isbn=0-262-08326-4|publisher=Dahlem Workshop Reports|location=Berlin}}</ref> An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist. * [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.2307/3677205|last1=Zahavi|first1=A.|year=1995|title=Altruism as a handicap – The limitations of kin selection and reciprocity|jstor=3677205|journal=Avian Biol|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–3}}</ref> Since altruism takes away resources from the altruist it can be an "honest signal" of resource availability and the abilities needed to gather resources. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also be a signal of interactive and cooperative intentions since those not interacting further in the future gain nothing from the costly signaling. It is unclear if costly signaling can indicate a long-term cooperative personality but people have increased trust for those who help. Costly signaling is pointless if everyone has the same traits, resources, and cooperative intentions but become a potentially more important signal if the population increasingly varies on these characteristics.<ref name=AEP1/> :Hunters widely sharing the meat has been seen as a costly signal of ability and research has found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they themselves receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations has been seen as ways of demonstrating one's resources. Heroic risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.<ref name=AEP1/> [[File:FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg|thumb|Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the [[Houston Astrodome]], following Hurricane Katrina.]] :Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on the value of reputation and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helping when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, is publicly announced, is discussed, or is simply being observed by someone else. This have been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects.<ref name=AEP1/> Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as altruistic. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate money they know are not needed by recipient which may be because of reputational concerns.<ref name="AEP2">Wendy Iredal and Mark van Vugt. Altruism as showing off: a signaling perspective on promoting green behaviour and acts of kindness. In {{cite doi|10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001|noedit}}</ref> :Women have been found to find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When looking for a long-term partner more conventional altruism may be preferred which may indicate that he is also willing to share resources with her and her children while when looking for a short-term partner heroic risk-taking, which may be costly signal showing good genes, may be more preferable. Men also perform more altruistic acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships which may be because they expect less success.<ref name=AEP1/><ref name=AEP2/> :People may compete over getting the benefits of a high reputation which may cause [[competitive altruism]]. On other hand, in some experiments a proportion of people do not seem to care about reputation and they do not help more even if this is conspicuous. This may possibly be due to reasons such as [[psychopathy]] or that they are so attractive that they need not be seen to be altruistic. The reputational benefits of altruism occur in the future as compared to the immediate costs of altruism in the present. While humans and other organisms generally place less value on future costs/benefits as compared to those in the present, some have shorter time horizons than others and these people tend to be less cooperative.<ref name=AEP1/> :Explicit extrinsic rewards and punishments have been found to sometimes actually have the opposite effect on behaviors compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic, top-down incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which overall may make the behaviors less desirable. Another effect is that people would like altruism to be due to a personality characteristic rather than due to overt reputational concerns and simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of an action may actually reduce them. This may possibly be used as derogatory tactic against altruists, especially by those who are non-cooperators. A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good at all.<ref name=AEP1/> * [[Group selection]]. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as [[E. O. Wilson]] that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group even if these adaptions are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while there may instead prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (See also [[in-group favoritism]]). Group selection theory has been criticized by many other evolutionary scientists.<ref>Leon Neyfakh Where does good come from?, 17 April 2011, http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/04/17/where_does_good_come_from/</ref><ref>E. O. Wilson. Biologist E.O. Wilson on Why Humans, Like Ants, Need a Tribe. 2 April 2012. The Daily Beast. http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/04/01/biologist-e-o-wilson-on-why-humans-like-ants-need-a-tribe.html</ref> [[File:Helping the homeless.jpg|right|thumb|Helping the homeless in New York City]] Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their [[inclusive fitness]] when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors.<ref name=AEP1/> Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment; if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits.<ref name=AEP1/> The benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than to strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than to competitors, and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.<ref name=AEP1/> The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides.'' These protists live as individual [[amoebae]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1207/s15327965pli1701_01|last1=Brown|first1=S.L.|last2=Brown|first2=R.M.|year=2006|title=Selective investment theory: Recasting the functional significance of close relationships|url=http://icos.groups.si.umich.edu/Brown-Stephanie.pdf|format=PDF|journal=Psychological Inquiry|volume=17|pages=1–29}}</ref> Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian zoologist and anarchist [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]].'' Most recently, [[Jeremy Griffith]] has proposed a biological theory for the development of truly altruistic instincts that accommodates the biological imperative to reproduce, as evidenced by a moral conscience visible in humans today.<ref>Griffith J. 2011. ''Conscience''. In ''The Book of Real Answers to Everything!'' ISBN 9781741290073. http://www.worldtransformation.com/conscience/</ref> ===Neurobiology=== Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research, published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] USA in October, 2006,<ref>Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation, PNAS 2006:103(42);15623–15628</ref> they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually lights up in response to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable.<ref name="brain">{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701056.html |title=If It Feels Good to Be Good, It Might Be Only Natural |publisher=Washington Post |date=May 2007 |first=Shankar |last=Vedantam |accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> Another experiment funded by the [[National Institutes of Health]] and conducted in 2007 at the [[Duke University]] in [[Durham, North Carolina]] suggests a different view, "that altruistic behavior may originate from how people view the world rather than how they act in it."<ref>[http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/61312.php "Brain Scan Predicts Difference Between Altruistic And Selfish People"]</ref> In the study published in the February 2007 print issue of [[Nature Neuroscience]], researchers have found a part of the brain that behaves differently for altruistic and selfish people. The researchers invited 45 volunteers to play a computer game and also to watch the computer play the game. In some rounds, the game resulted in the volunteers winning money for themselves, and in others it resulted in money being donated to a charity of the volunteer's choice. During these activities, the researchers took functional magnetic resonance imaging ([[fMRI]]) scans of the participants' brains and were "surprised by the results". Although they "were expecting to see activity in the brain's reward centers," based on the idea that "people perform altruistic acts because they feel good about it," what they found was that "another part of the brain was also involved, and it was quite sensitive to the difference between doing something for personal gain and doing it for someone else's gain." That part of the brain is called the posterior superior [[temporal cortex]] (pSTC). In the next stage, the scientists asked the participants some questions about type and frequency of their altruistic or helping behaviours. They then analysed the responses to generate an estimate of a person's tendency to act altruistically and compared each person's level of altruism against their [[fMRI]] [[brain scan]]. The results showed that pSTC activity rose in proportion to a person's self-reported level of altruism. According to the researchers, the results suggest that altruistic behavior may originate from how people view the world rather than how they act in it. "We believe that the ability to perceive other people's actions as meaningful is critical for altruism," said lead study investigator Dharol Tankersley.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/01/070121162756.htm "Activation Of Brain Region Predicts Altruism"]</ref> ===Psychology=== The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state with the goal of increasing another’s welfare." Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism,'' which refers to the motivation to increase one’s own welfare.<ref name="encyclopedia">["Altruism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. William A. Darity, Jr. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 87-88. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 April 2012.]</ref> There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism.<ref name="batson3">[Batson, C. (2011). Altruism in humans. New York, NY US: Oxford University Press.]</ref> Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors.<ref name="prosocial">[Batson, C. (2012). A history of prosocial behavior research. In A. W. Kruglanski, W. Stroebe, A. W. Kruglanski, W. Stroebe (Eds.), Handbook of the history of social psychology (pp. 243–264). New York, NY US: Psychology Press.]</ref> However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when benefits outweigh costs.<ref name="noaltruism">[Maner, J. K., Luce, C. L., Neuberg, S. L., Cialdini, R. B., Brown, S., & Sagarin, B. J. (2002). The effects of perspective taking on motivations for helping: Still no evidence for altruism. Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(11), 1601–1610. doi:10.1177/014616702237586]</ref> [[Daniel Batson]] is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives for altruism: altruism to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless.<ref name=" baston2">[Batson, C., Ahmad, N., & Stocks, E. L. (2011). Four forms of prosocial motivation: Egoism, altruism, collectivism, and principlism. In D. Dunning, D. Dunning (Eds.), Social motivation (pp. 103–126). New York, NY US: Psychology Press.]</ref> The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering.<ref name="encyclopedia"/> Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Svetlova|first1=M.|last2=Nichols|first2=S. R.|last3=Brownell|first3=C. A.|year=2010|title=Toddlers prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping|journal=Child Development|volume=81|issue=6|pages=1814–1827|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01512.x|pmid=21077866|pmc=3088085}}</ref> [[File:Peace Corps Volunteer swearing in Cambodia, 2007.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Peace Corps]] trainees swearing in as volunteers in [[Cambodia]], 4 April 2007]] In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service.<ref name="prosocial"/> Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the ''[[Bystander effect]]''). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility.<ref name="encyclopedia"/><ref>Hudson, James M. & Bruckman, Amy S. (2004). "The Bystander Effect: A Lens for Understanding Patterns of Participation". Journal of the Learning Sciences 13 (2): 165–195. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1302_2.</ref> However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.<ref name="encyclopedia"/> A feeling of personal responsibility or - moral norm - has also strongly been associated with other pro-social behaviors such as charitable giving.<ref>{{cite journal|author=van der Linden, S.|title=Charitable Intent: A Moral or Social Construct? A Revised Theory of Planned Behavior Model|doi=10.1007/s12144-011-9122-1|journal=Current Psychology|year=2011|volume=30|issue=4 |pages=355–374}}</ref> Many studies have observed the effects of volunteerism (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being.<ref name="volunteer1">{{cite journal|last1=Musick|first1=M. A.|last2=Wilson|first2=J.|year=2003|title=Volunteering and depression: The role of psychological and social resources in different age groups|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=56|issue=2|pages=259–269|doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00025-4}}</ref><ref name="volunteer2">[Koenig, L. B., McGue, M., Krueger, R. F., & Bouchard, T. r. (2007). Religiousness, antisocial behavior, and altruism: Genetic and environmental mediation. ''Journal Of Personality'', 75(2), 265-290. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00439.x]</ref> In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were significantly higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and significantly lower in [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[anxiety]], and [[somatization]].<ref name="elderly1">{{cite journal|last1=Hunter|first1=K. I.|last2=Hunter|first2=M. W.|year=1980|title=Psychosocial differences between elderly volunteers and non-volunteers|journal=The International Journal of Aging & Human Development|volume=12|issue=3|pages=205–213|doi=10.2190/0H6V-QPPP-7JK4-LR38}}</ref> Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but physical health and longevity as well.<ref name="volunteer1"/><ref name="volunteer3">Kayloe, J. C., & Krause, M. (1985). RARE FIND: or The value of volunteerism. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, 8(4), 49-56.</ref><ref name="volunteer4">{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=S. L.|last2=Brown|first2=R.|last3=House|first3=J. S.|last4=Smith|first4=D. M.|year=2008|title=Coping with spousal loss: Potential buffering effects of self-reported helping behavior|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|volume=34|issue=6|pages=849–861|doi=10.1177/0146167208314972|pmid=18344495}}</ref><ref name="volunteer5">{{cite journal|last1=Post|first1=S. G.|year=2005|title=Altruism, Happiness, and Health: It's Good to Be Good|journal=International Journal of Behavioral Medicine|volume=12|issue=2|pages=66–77|doi=10.1207/s15327558ijbm1202_4|pmid=15901215}}</ref> One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one.<ref name="volunteer6">{{cite journal |last1=Moen |first1=P. |last2=Dempster-Mcclain |first2=D. |last3=Williams |first3=R. M. |year=1992|title=Successful aging: A life-course perspective on women's multiple roles and health|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=97|issue=6|pages=1612–1638|doi=10.1086/229941}}</ref> A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality.<ref name="volunteer7">{{cite journal|last1=Oman|first1=D.|last2=Thoresen|first2=C. E.|last3=McMahon|first3=K.|year=1999|title=Volunteerism and mortality among the community-dwelling elderly|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=301–316|doi=10.1177/135910539900400301|pmid=22021599}}</ref> Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness.<ref name="countingkindness">{{cite journal|last1=Otake|first1=K.|last2=Shimai|first2=S.|last3=Tanaka-Matsumi|first3=J.|last4=Otsui|first4=K.|last5=Fredrickson|first5=B. L.|year=2006|title=Happy people become happier through kindness: A counting kindnesses intervention|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=361–375|doi=10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z|pmid=17356687|pmc=1820947}}</ref> It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.<ref name="moodandgenerosity">{{cite journal|last1=Underwood|first1=B.|last2=Froming|first2=W. J.|last3=Moore|first3=B. S.|year=1977|title=Mood, attention, and altruism: A search for mediating variables|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=13|issue=5|pages=541–542|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.13.5.541}}</ref> Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness.<ref name="volunteer5"/> For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant).<ref name="overwhelmed">{{cite journal|last1=Schwartz|first1=C.|last2=Meisenhelder|first2=J.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.|last4=Reed|first4=G.|year=2003|title=Altruistic Social Interest Behaviors Are Associated With Better Mental Health|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=65|issue=5|pages=778–785|doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000079378.39062.D4|pmid=14508020}}</ref> Additionally, while generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that "a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being.".<ref name="gratitude">{{cite journal|last1=Shimai|first1=S.|last2=Otake|first2=K.|last3=Park|first3=N.|last4=Peterson|first4=C.|last5=Seligman|first5=M. P.|year=2006|title=Convergence of character strengths in American and Japanese young adults|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=311–322|doi=10.1007/s10902-005-3647-7}}</ref> Psychologists generally refer to this virtuous cycle of helping others, doing good and subsequently feeling good as "the helper's high".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://odewire.com/176916/the-helper%E2%80%99s-high.html|title=The helper's high: Why it feels so good to give|publisher=Ode Magazine|date=December 2011 |first=Sander|last=Van der Linden|accessdate=14 November 2013 }}</ref> ===Sociology=== "Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". American Sociological Association.<ref>[http://www.asanet.org/sections/altruism.cfm American Sociological Association: Altruism, Morality and Social Solidarity<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges [[Public sociology]] saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity" ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build the good society". {{See also|Public sociology}} ==Religious viewpoints== {{See also|Evolutionary origin of religions}} Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Buddhism]], Christianity, [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Jainism]], Judaism and [[Sikhism]], etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality. ===Buddhism=== [[File:Monks collecting alms - Bun Vat Phu.JPG|thumb|Monks collecting alms]] Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" (Dalai Lama).<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama">[http://www.dalailama.com/page.65.htm Speech by the Dalai Lama]<br>The phrase "core of our being" is [[Freudian]]; see {{Cite journal | author = Bettina Bock von Wülfingen | year = 2013 | title = Freud's 'Core of our Being' Between Cytology and Psychoanalysis | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bewi.201301604/pdf | journal = Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte | volume = 36 | pages = 226–244 | doi = 10.1002/bewi.201301604 | issue = 3 }}</ref> Since "all beings" includes the individual, love and compassion in Buddhism are outside the opposition between self and other. It is even said that the distinction between self and other is part of the root cause of our suffering. In practical terms, however, since most of us are spontaneously self-centered, Buddhism encourages us to focus love and compassion on others, and thus can be characterized as "altruistic." Many would agree with the [[Dalai Lama]] that Buddhism as a religion is kindness toward others. Still, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama<ref name="Speech by the Dalai Lama"/>). In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what I cause: if I cause suffering, then as a natural consequence I will experience suffering; if I cause happiness, then as a natural consequence I will experience happiness. {{Main|Karma in Buddhism}} In Buddhism, ''karma'' (Pāli ''kamma'') is strictly distinguished from '''''[[vipaka|vipāka]]''''', meaning "fruit" or "result". Karma is categorized within the group or groups of cause (Pāli ''hetu'') in the [[Twelve nidanas|chain]] of [[Pratitya-samutpada|cause and effect]], where it comprises the elements of "volitional activities" (Pali ''sankhara'') and "action" (Pali ''bhava''). Any action is understood to create "seeds" in the mind that sprout into the appropriate results (Pāli ''vipaka'') when they meet the right conditions. Most types of karmas, with good or bad results, will keep one in the wheel of [[Samsara (Buddhism)|samsāra]]; others will liberate one to [[nirvana|nirvāna]]. Buddhism relates karma directly to motives behind an action. Motivation usually makes the difference between "good" and "bad", but motivation also includes the aspect of ignorance; so a well-intended action from an ignorant mind can easily be "bad" in that it creates unpleasant results for the "actor." In Buddhism, karma is not the only cause of all that happens. As taught in the early texts, the commentarial tradition classified causal mechanisms governing the universe in five categories, known as Niyama Dhammas:<ref>{{cite book| last = Davids| first = Rhys| title = Buddhism| url = http://books.google.com/?id=LljcZ_LBeL0C&pg=PA119| year = 2007| publisher = Lightning Source Incorporated| isbn = 978-1-4067-5628-9| page = 119 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Padmasiri de Silva| title = Environmental Philosophy and Ethics in Buddhism| url = http://books.google.com/?id=M4T3C6ndfZIC&pg=PA41| year = 1998| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan| isbn = 978-0-312-21316-9| page = 41 }}</ref> * Kamma Niyama — Consequences of one's actions * Utu Niyama — Seasonal changes and climate * Biija Niyama — Laws of heredity * Citta Niyama — Will of mind * Dhamma Niyama — Nature's tendency to produce a perfect type ===Jainism=== The fundamental principles of [[Jainism]] revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of [[Ahimsa]] – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first Thirthankar, Rishabh introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things. Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are: # Non-violence (Ahimsa); # Truthfulness (Satya); # Non-stealing (Asteya); # Celibacy (Brahmacharya); # Non-possession or non-materialism (Aparigraha); A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride (ego) by humility, deceit by straight-forwardness and greed by contentment. The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become Siddha (Param-atma – "highest soul"). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. The "great vows" (mahavrata) are prescribed for monks and "limited vows" (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. In other words, the house-holders are encouraged to practice the five cardinal principles of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possessiveness with their current practical limitations while the monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress. ===Christianity=== [[File:StThomasMount Theresa.JPG|thumb|180px|Statue of [[Mother Teresa]] in India]] Altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the [[Gospel]], especially in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] and the [[Sermon on the Plain]]. From biblical to medieval [[Christian traditions]], tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of "disinterested love", as in the [[Paul the Apostle|Pauline]] phrase "love seeks not its own interests." In his book ''Indoctrination and Self-deception,'' Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their freedom, shuns propaganda and masks, assures others of its presence, and is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the making of the connection. [[St Thomas Aquinas]] in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', II:II Quaestio 25, Article 4 states that we should love our neighbour more than our ourselves. His interpretation of the Pauline phrase is that we should seek the common good more than the private good, but this is because the common good is a more desirable good for the individual. St Thomas interprets 'You should love your neighbour as yourself' from [[Leviticus]] 19 and Matthew 22 as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. However, he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude: a more desirable thing than bodily well being. In coining the word Altruism, as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. [[Thomas Jay Oord]] has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being. German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and existence".<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=88–89}}</ref> Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people’s business."<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=95–96}}</ref> At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheler|first=Max|title=Ressentiment|year=1961|pages=96–97}}</ref> ===Islam=== In [[Islam]], the concept 'īthār' (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring others to oneself'. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is rooted to be a demand made by Allah on the human body, considered to be property of Allah alone. The importance lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing īthār as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.<ref>{{cite book| last = M| title = Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart| year = 2004| publisher = Fountain| location = Rutherford, N.J.| isbn = 1-932099-75-1| pages = 10–11 }}</ref> This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in i'thar attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for [[Allah]] (i.e. God) results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.<ref name="Neusner2005">{{cite book| last = Neusner| first = Jacob Eds| title = Altruism in World Religions| year = 2005| publisher = Georgetown Univ. Press| location = Washington, D.C.| isbn = 1-58901-065-5| pages = 79–80 }}</ref> This concept was emphasized by Sufis of Islam like [[Rabia al-Adawiyya]] who paid attention to the difference between dedication to [[Allah]] (i.e. God) and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet [[Yunus Emre]] explained this philosophy as "Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü" or ''We love the creature, because of The Creator.'' For many Muslims, i'thar must be practiced as a religious obligation during specific Islamic holidays. However, i'thar is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times. ===Judaism=== Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity.<ref>{{cite book |author2=Ben Zion Bokser |last1=Kook |first1=Abraham Isaac| title = Abraham Isaac Kook: The lights of penitence, The moral principles, Lights of holiness, essays, letters, and poems| year = 1978| publisher = Paulist Press| isbn = 978-0-8091-2159-5| pages = 135–136}}</ref> This is defined as [[Corporate welfare|bestowal]], or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. [[Kabbalah]] defines God as the force of giving in [[existence]]. Rabbi [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]] in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force.<ref>{{cite book| last = Luzzatto| first = Moshe Ḥayyim| title = The way of God| year = 1997| publisher = Feldheim Publishers| isbn = 978-0-87306-769-0| pages = 37–38}}</ref> Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi [[Yehuda Ashlag]], in his writings about the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ashlag| first = Yehuda| title = Building the Future Society| url = http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main| year = 2006| publisher = Laitman Kabbalah Publishers| location = Thornhill, Canada| isbn = 965-7065-34-8| pages = 120–130 }}</ref> Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to [[divinity]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Ashlag| first = Yehuda| title = Building the Future Society| url = http://www.kabbalah.info/eng/content/view/frame/3811?/eng/content/view/full/3811&main| year = 2006| publisher = Laitman Kabbalah Publishers| location = Thornhill, Canada| isbn = 965-7065-34-8| pages = 175–180 }}</ref> ===Sikhism=== Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness. The fifth Nanak, Guru Arjun Dev Sacrificed his life to uphold 22 Carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity, the Guru Granth. The Ninth Nanak, Guru Tegh Bahadur Sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late 17th century, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] Ji (the tenth [[guru]] in Sikhism), was in war with the [[Moghul]] rulers to protect the people of different faiths, when a fellow Sikh, [[Bhai Kanhaiya]], attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. "What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them," replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru." It was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for doing the same.<ref>{{cite book| author = O. P. Ralhan| title = The great gurus of the Sikhs| year = 1997| publisher = Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd.| location = New Delhi| isbn = 81-7488-479-3| page = 253 }}</ref> ===Hinduism=== [[Advaita Vedanta]] differs from the view that karma is a law of cause and effect but instead additionally hold that karma is mediated by the will of a personal supreme god. This view of karma is in contradiction to [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and other [[Indian religions]] that do view karma as a law of cause and effect. [[Swami Sivananda]], an [[Advaita]] scholar, reiterates the same views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the [[Brahma Sutras]], a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates [[apurva]] or [[Merit (Buddhism)|punya]], which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment.<ref>Sivananda, Swami. ''Phaladhikaranam, Topic 8'', Sutras 38–41.</ref> ==Philosophy== {{main|Altruism (ethics)}} There exists a wide range of philosophical views on man's obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is [[ethical egoism]], which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with [[utilitarianism]], which is the view that every individual's well-being (including one's own) is of equal moral importance. A related concept in [[descriptive ethics]] is [[psychological egoism]], the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. [[Rational egoism]] is the view that [[rationality]] consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations). ==See also== {{Columns-list|2| * [[Altruria]] * [[Charity (practice)]] * [[Charitable organization]] * [[Comedy of the commons]] * [[Effective altruism]] * [[Egotism]] * [[Empathy]] * [[Empathy-altruism]] * [[Family economics]] * [[Gene-centered view of evolution]] * [[Giving Pledge]], pledge by Gates, Buffett and others to donate to charity at least half of their wealth * [[Inclusive fitness]] * [[Group selection]] * [[Kin selection]] * [[Misanthropy]] * [[Mutual aid (organization)|Mutual aid]] * [[Philanthropy]] * ''[[The Power of Half]]''; how a family came to decide to sell its home, so that it could donate half the proceeds to charity * [[Prisoner's dilemma]] * [[Prosocial behavior]] * [[Random act of kindness]] * [[Reciprocal altruism]] * [[Selfishness]] * [[Social psychology]] * [[Solidarity (sociology)]] * [[Tit for tat]] }} == Notes == {{reflist|group=notes}} ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ;Bibliography {{Refbegin|2}} * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = The Altruism Reader| year = 2007| publisher = Templeton Foundation Press| location = Philadelphia| isbn = 978-1-59947-127-3 }} * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = Defining Love| year = 2010| publisher = Brazos Press| location = Grand Rapids| isbn = 1-58743-257-9 }} * {{cite book| last = Batson| first = Charles| title = The Altruism Question| year = 1991| publisher = L. Erlbaum, Associates| location = Mahwah| isbn = 978-0-8058-0245-0 }} * {{cite doi|10.1126/science.1133755}} * {{cite doi|10.1038/nature02043}} * [[Auguste Comte|Comte, Auguste]], ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891) * {{cite doi|10.1016/S1053-5357(99)00045-1}} * [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin, Peter]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' (1902) * {{cite book| last = Oord| first = Thomas| title = Science of Love| year = 2004| publisher = Templeton Foundation Press| location = Philadelphia| isbn = 978-1-932031-70-6 }} * [[Nietzsche, Friedrich]], ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' * [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847) * [[Lysander Spooner]], ''Natural Law'' * [[Matt Ridley]], ''[[The Origins of Virtue]]'' * Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995. * {{cite book| last = Axelrod| first = Robert| title = The Evolution of Cooperation| year = 1984| publisher = Basic Books| location = New York| isbn = 0-465-02121-2 }} * {{cite book| last = Dawkins| first = Richard| title = The Selfish Gene| year = 1989| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford Oxfordshire| isbn = 0-19-286092-5 }} * {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Robert|title=The Moral Animal|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|year=1995|isbn=0-679-76399-6}} * {{cite doi|10.1348/000712606X129213}} * Wedekind, C. and Milinski, M. Human Cooperation in the simultaneous and the alternating Prisoner's Dilemma: Pavlov versus Generous Tit-for-tat. ''Evolution'', Vol. 93, pp.&nbsp;2686–2689, April 1996. * {{cite doi|10.1007/s12147-002-0024-2}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Wiktionary|altruism}} ;General {{In Our Time|Altruism|p0038x9c|Altruism}} * {{cite episode|title=Radiolab: "The Good Show"|url=http://www.radiolab.org/2010/dec/14/|station=WNYC|city=New York|airdate=14 December 2011|season=9|number=1}} ;Society * [http://altruists.org/215 What is Altruism?] from Altruists International ;Philosophy and religion * [http://www.kabbalah.info/engkab/kabbalah-video-clips/giving-and-receiving "Giving and Receiving"] from ''Kabbalah.info'' * [http://them.polylog.org/3/fcs-en.htm Selflessness: Toward a Buddhist Vision of Social Justice] by Sungtaek Cho ;Science * [http://beta.in-mind.org/node/211 ''Altruism: Myth or Reality?''], by Dan Batson and Nadia Ahmad * {{SEP|altruism-biological|Biological Altruism|}} * [http://www.humboldt.edu/altruism/ The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute] at [[Humboldt State University]] * {{cite journal|author=Dharol Tankersley, C. Jill Stowe & Scott A. Huettel|title=Altruism is associated with an increased neural response to agency|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=10|issue=2|pages=150–151|date=21 January 2007|pmid=17237779|doi=10.1038/nn1833|url=http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v10/n2/abs/nn1833.html}} * [http://ibcsr.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=114:unraveling-moral-condemnation&catid=25:research-news&Itemid=59 "Unraveling altruism, conscience, and condemnation"] {{Navboxes |title=Articles and topics related to Altruism |state=collapsed |list1= {{Defence mechanisms}} {{Philosophy topics}} {{Charity}} }} [[Category:Altruism]] [[Category:Defence mechanisms]] [[Category:Evolution by phenotype]] [[Category:Morality]] [[Category:Philanthropy]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Social psychology]] [[Category:Auguste Comte]] [[Category:Virtue]] {{Link GA|fi}} qcomdyzv3hz89igyvapbjcgalbybqdp wikitext text/x-wiki 0 338 160875429 15899073 2007-09-28T08:28:44Z Closedmouth 372693 R from CamelCase #REDIRECT [[Auto racing]]{{R from CamelCase}} t59iza1rg3pkv689k1ivnm0hq6s7lur wikitext text/x-wiki 0 339 602068615 602067929 2014-03-31T05:56:28Z Dr.K. 894320 Reverted to revision 601910398 by [[Special:Contributions/98.222.49.101|98.222.49.101]] ([[User talk:98.222.49.101|talk]]): Back to stable version. 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([[WP:TW|TW]][[WP:QUALITYCONTROL|★]][[WP:TW|TW]]) {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Good article}} {{Infobox writer | name = Ayn Rand | image = Ayn_Rand1.jpg | alt = Half-length monochrome portrait photo of Ayn Rand, seated, holding a cigarette | caption = Ayn Rand in 1957 | pseudonym = Ayn Rand | birth_name = Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum | birth_date = {{birth date|mf=yes|1905|2|2}} | birth_place = [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]] | death_date = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1982|3|6|1905|2|2}} | death_place = [[New York City, New York]], U.S. | resting_place = [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]], U.S. | occupation = Writer | citizenship = {{ubl|Russia (1905–1922)|Soviet Union (1922–1931)|United States (1931–1982)}} | ethnicity = [[Russian Jew]]ish | language = English | period = 1934–1982 | subject = [[Philosophy]] | alma_mater = [[Saint_Petersburg_State_University#History|Petrograd State University]] | spouse = {{ubl|Frank O'Connor|(m. 1929–1979; his death)}} | notableworks = {{ubl|''[[The Fountainhead]]''|''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''}} | awards = {{Awards |award=[[Prometheus Award]] |name=Hall of Fame |year=1983 |title=[[Atlas Shrugged]] |year2=1987 |title2=[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]}} | signature = Sign Ayn Rand.png | signature_alt = Ayn Rand }} '''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|n|_|ˈ|r|æ|n|d}};<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=71}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=9}}</ref> born '''Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum'''; {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|January 20}} – March 6, 1982) was an [[United States|American]] [[novelist]], philosopher,<!-- DO NOT REMOVE WITHOUT CONSENSUS --><ref>{{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=x}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=1–2}}; {{harvnb|Kukathas|1998|p=55}}; {{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}.</ref> playwright, and screenwriter. She is known for her two best-selling novels, ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', and for developing a philosophical system she called [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]]. Born and educated in [[Russian American|Russia]], Rand moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play produced on Broadway in 1935–1936. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful in America, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, ''[[The Fountainhead]]''. In 1957, she published her best-known work, the novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. Afterward, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own magazines and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982. Rand advocated [[reason]] as the only means of acquiring [[knowledge]] and rejected faith and religion. She supported [[rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]], and rejected [[ethical altruism]]. In politics, she condemned the [[initiation of force]] as immoral<ref>{{harvnb|Barry|1987|p=122}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=309–314}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=298}}; {{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|p=91}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=46}}</ref> and opposed [[collectivism]] and [[statism]] as well as [[anarchism]], instead supporting a [[minarchist]] [[limited government]] and ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]], which she believed to be the only social system that protected [[individual rights]]. In art, Rand promoted [[romantic realism]]. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for some [[Aristotelians]] and [[classical liberals]].<ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1977|pp=18–20}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=12, 118}}</ref> Literary critics received Rand's fiction with mixed reviews,<ref name="Gladstein 117-119">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|pp=117–119}}</ref> and academia generally ignored or rejected her philosophy. The [[Objectivist movement]] attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings.<ref name="reception">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=1–2}}</ref> She has been a significant influence among [[libertarians]] and [[American conservatives]].<ref name="politicalinfluence">{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=107–108, 124}}</ref> ==Life== ===Early life=== Rand was born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum ({{lang-ru|Али́са Зиновьевна Розенбаум}}) on February 2, 1905, to a [[Russian Jew]]ish [[bourgeois]]<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=xiii}}</ref> family living in [[Saint Petersburg]]. She was the eldest of the three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and his wife, Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan), largely non-observant [[Jews]]. Zinovy Rosenbaum was a successful pharmacist and businessman, eventually owning a pharmacy and the building in which it was located.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=3–5}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=2–3}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=9}}</ref> With a passion for the liberal arts, Rand found school unchallenging, and said she began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten.<ref>{{cite episode|series=The Tomorrow Show|credit=Tom Snyder|network=NBC|airdate=July 2, 1979}}</ref> She was twelve at the time of the [[February Revolution]] of 1917, during which she favored [[Alexander Kerensky]] over [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas II]]. The subsequent [[October Revolution]] and the rule of the [[Bolshevik]]s under [[Vladimir Lenin]] disrupted the comfortable life the family had previously enjoyed. Her father’s business was confiscated and the family displaced. They fled to the [[Crimean Peninsula]], which was initially under control of the [[White Army]] during the [[Russian Civil War]]. She later recalled that, while in high school, she determined that she was an [[atheist]] and that she valued [[reason]] above any other human virtue. After graduating from high school in the Crimea at 16, Rand returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=35–39}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=14–20}}</ref> [[File:Spb 06-2012 University Embankment 06.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The Twelve Collegia of what was then Petrograd State University|Rand completed a three-year program at [[Petrograd State University]].]] After the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, allowing Rand to be in the first group of women to enroll at [[Petrograd State University]],<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=15}}</ref> where she studied in the department of [[social pedagogy]], majoring in history.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=77}}</ref> At the university she was introduced to the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]],<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1999|pp=5–8}}</ref> who would be her greatest influence and counter-influence, respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=451–460}}</ref> A third figure whose philosophical works she studied heavily was [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=17–18, 22–24}}</ref> Able to read French, German and Russian, Rand also discovered the writers [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[Edmond Rostand]], and [[Friedrich Schiller]], who became her perennial favorites.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=17, 22}}</ref> Along with many other "bourgeois" students, Rand was purged from the university shortly before graduating. However, after complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=24}}</ref> which Rand did in October 1924.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1999|p=1}}</ref> She subsequently studied for a year at the State [[Technicum]] for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For one of her assignments, she wrote an essay about the [[Polish people|Polish]] actress [[Pola Negri]], which became her first published work.<ref name="Heller49-50">{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=49–50}}</ref> By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be ''Rand'',<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=33}}</ref> possibly as a [[Cyrillic]] contraction of her birth surname,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=55}}</ref> and she adopted the first name ''Ayn'', either from a [[Finnish language|Finnish]] name or from the [[Hebrew]] word {{lang|he| עין}} (''ayin'', meaning "eye").<ref>Rand said the origin of ''Ayn'' was Finnish {{harv|Rand|1995|p=40}}, but some biographical sources question this, suggesting it may come from a Hebrew nickname. {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=55–57}} provides a detailed discussion.</ref> === Arrival in the United States === [[File:Pola Negri by Ayn Rand cover.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A brown book cover with black-and-white drawings and text in Russian. The drawing on the left is a portrait of a woman with dark hair; the drawing on the right is of skyscrapers.|Cover of Rand's first published work, a 2,500-word monograph on ''femme fatale'' [[Pola Negri]] published in 1925.<ref name="Heller49-50"/>]] In the fall of 1925, Rand was granted a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to visit American relatives. She departed on January 17, 1926.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=50–51}}</ref> When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of [[Manhattan]] that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor".<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=53}}</ref> Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with relatives in [[Chicago]], one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films for free. She then set out for [[Hollywood, California]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=57–60}}</ref> Initially, Rand struggled in Hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. A chance meeting with famed director [[Cecil B. DeMille]] led to a job as an [[extra (drama)|extra]] in his film ''[[The King of Kings (1927 film)|The King of Kings]]'' as well as subsequent work as a junior screenwriter.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=34–36}}</ref> While working on ''The King of Kings'', she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. Rand [[United States nationality law#Naturalization|became an American citizen]] in 1931. Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, she worked for a time as the head of the costume department at [[RKO]] Studios.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=35–40}}; {{harvnb|Paxton|1998|pp=74, 81, 84}}</ref> She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=96–98}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=43–44, 52}}</ref> ===Early fiction=== {{See also|Night of January 16th|We the Living|Anthem (novella)}} Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' to [[Universal Studios]] in 1932, although it was never produced.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=40, 42}}</ref> This was followed by the courtroom drama ''[[Night of January 16th]]'', first produced by [[E.E. Clive]] in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on [[Broadway theater|Broadway]] in 1935. Each night the "jury" was selected from members of the audience, and one of the two different endings, depending on the jury's "verdict", would then be performed.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=76, 92}}</ref> In 1941, [[Paramount Pictures]] produced a movie loosely based on the play. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=78}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=87}}</ref> Rand's first novel, the semi-autobiographical ''[[We the Living]]'', was published in 1936. Set in [[Soviet Russia]], it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. In a 1959 foreword to the novel, Rand stated that ''We the Living'' "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not..."<ref>{{cite book |last=Rand |first=Ayn |chapter=Foreword |title=We the Living |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |page=xviii |isbn=0-525-94054-5 |oclc=32780458 |edition=60th Anniversary |year=1995 |origyear=1936}}</ref> Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=13}}</ref> although European editions continued to sell.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=141}}</ref> After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=143}}</ref> Without Rand's knowledge or permission, the novel was made into a pair of Italian films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira'', in 1942. Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''[[We the Living (film)|We the Living]]'' in 1986.<ref>{{harvnb|Paxton|1998|p=104}}</ref> Her novella ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, ''The Fountainhead''. It presents a vision of a [[dystopian]] future world in which [[totalitarian]] collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=50}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=102}}</ref> It was published in England in 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with ''We the Living'', Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5 million copies.<ref>Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing ''Anthem''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005a|pp=24–27}}</ref> ===''The Fountainhead'' and political activism=== {{See also|The Fountainhead|The Fountainhead (film)}} During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. Both she and her husband worked full-time in volunteer positions for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican [[Wendell Willkie]]. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences, including fielding the sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had just viewed pro-Willkie [[newsreels]], an experience she greatly enjoyed.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=57}}</ref> This activity also brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist [[Henry Hazlitt]] and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the [[Austrian School]] economist [[Ludwig von Mises]]. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Once Mises referred to Rand as "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=249}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=188–189}}</ref> Rand also developed a friendship with libertarian writer [[Isabel Paterson]]. Rand questioned the well-informed Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their numerous meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only nonfiction book, ''[[The God of the Machine]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=75–78}}</ref> Rand's first major success as a writer came with ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' in 1943, a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=61–78}}</ref> The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named [[Howard Roark]] and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"— those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=58–61}}</ref> While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed [[Benzedrine]], a brand of [[amphetamine]], to fight fatigue.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=85}}</ref> The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the finished novel, but when the book was done, she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=89}}</ref> Her continued use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=304–305}}</ref> ''The Fountainhead'' eventually became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=149}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=180–181}}</ref> In 1943, Rand sold the rights for a [[The Fountainhead (film)|film version]] to [[Warner Bros.]], and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer [[Hal Wallis]] as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-nominated ''[[Love Letters (1945 film)|Love Letters]]'' and ''[[You Came Along]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|pp=68–80}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=183–198}}</ref> This role gave Rand time to work on other projects, including a planned nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called ''The Moral Basis of Individualism''. Although the planned book was never completed, a condensed version was published as an essay titled "The Only Path to Tomorrow", in the January 1944 edition of ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' magazine.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=112}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=171}}</ref> {{Wikisource|Ayn Rand's testimony before the House of Representatives Committee on Un-American Activities}} Rand extended her involvement with free-market and [[anti-communist]] activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the [[Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals]], a Hollywood anti-Communist group, and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist [[American Writers Association]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=100–101, 123}}</ref> A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments that Rand saw as rude to valued political allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=130–131}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=214–215}}</ref> In 1947, during the [[Second Red Scare]], Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the [[Soviet Union]] and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film ''[[Song of Russia]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|pp=91–93}}</ref> Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as being much better and happier than it actually was.<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|pp=188–189}}</ref> She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but she was not allowed to testify about it.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=125}}</ref> When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations, Rand described the process as "futile".<ref>{{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|p=83}}</ref> After several delays, the film version of ''The Fountainhead'' was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end", complaining about its editing, acting, and other elements.<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=71}}</ref> ===''Atlas Shrugged'' and Objectivism=== {{See also|Atlas Shrugged|Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivist movement}} In the years following the publication of ''The Fountainhead'', Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom it profoundly influenced. In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future [[Federal Reserve Chairman]] [[Alan Greenspan]], a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later [[Nathaniel Branden]]) and his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and Barbara's cousin [[Leonard Peikoff]]. At first the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. Later she began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, ''Atlas Shrugged'', as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=256–264, 331–343}}</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'', published in 1957, was considered Rand's ''[[magnum opus]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=113}}; {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005b|p=78}}</ref> Rand described the theme of the novel as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest."<ref>Salmieri, Gregory. "''Atlas Shrugged'' on the Role of the Mind in Man's Existence". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2009|p=248}}</ref> It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]] and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a [[dystopia]]n United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists and artists go on [[strike action|strike]] against an oppressive government that is a caricature of communism, and retreat to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, [[John Galt]], describes the strike as "stopping the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of [[Romance novel|romance]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Dowd |first=Maureen |authorlink=Maureen Dowd |title=Atlas Without Angelina |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/opinion/17dowd.html |date=April 17, 2011 |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=July 30, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2010|p=507}}</ref> [[mystery (fiction)|mystery]], and [[science fiction]],<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=42}}</ref> and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction, a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Despite many negative reviews, ''Atlas Shrugged'' became an international bestseller, and in an interview with [[Mike Wallace (journalist)|Mike Wallace]], Rand declared herself "the most creative thinker alive".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=2}}</ref> After completing the novel, Rand fell into a severe depression.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=303–306}}</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'' was Rand's last completed work of fiction; a turning point in her life, it marked the end of Rand's career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.<ref name="ASturningpoint">{{harvnb|Gladstein|2000|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Younkins|2007|p=1}}; {{harvnb|Baker|1987|p=17}}</ref> In 1958 Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for [[Objectivist periodicals]] that she edited. Rand later published some of these articles in book form. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, have described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand, with some describing NBI or the [[Objectivist movement]] itself as a [[cult]] or religion.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=105–106}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=232–233}}</ref> Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=236–237}}</ref> Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=303}}</ref> and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|pp=237–238}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=329}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=235}}</ref> However, some former NBI students believe the extent of these behaviors has been exaggerated, with the problem being concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York.<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=235}}</ref> ===Later years=== Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as [[Yale]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Columbia University|Columbia]],<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=315–316}}</ref> [[Harvard]], and [[MIT]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=14}}</ref> She received an honorary doctorate from [[Lewis & Clark College]] in 1963.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=318}}</ref> She also began delivering annual lectures at the [[Ford Hall Forum]], responding afterward to questions from the audience.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=16}}</ref> During these speeches and Q&A sessions, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=320–321}}</ref> opposing the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[military draft]] (but condemning many [[draft dodgers]] as "bums"),<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=228–229, 265}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=352}}</ref> supporting [[Israel]] in the [[Yom Kippur War]] of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as "civilized men fighting savages",<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=96}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=266}}</ref> saying [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]] had the right to take land from [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]],<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=266}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=391}}</ref> and calling [[homosexuality]] "immoral" and "disgusting", while also advocating the repeal of all laws about it.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=362, 519}}</ref> She also endorsed several [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidates for President of the United States, most strongly [[Barry Goldwater]] in [[United States presidential election, 1964|1964]], whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for ''The Objectivist Newsletter''.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=204–206}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=322–323}}</ref> [[File:Ayn Rand Marker.jpg|thumb|left|Grave marker for Rand and her husband at [[Kensico Cemetery]] in [[Valhalla, New York]]|alt=A twin gravestone bearing the name "Frank O'Connor" on the left, and "Ayn Rand O'Connor" on the right]] In 1964 Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott,<!--note: spelling is correct, please do not remove--> whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended,<ref>{{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=101}}</ref> Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, which led to the closure of NBI.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=344–358}}</ref> Rand published an article in ''The Objectivist'' repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life".<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=378–379}}</ref> Branden later apologized in an interview to "every student of Objectivism" for "perpetuating the Ayn Rand mystique" and for "contributing to that dreadful atmosphere of intellectual repressiveness that pervades the Objectivist movement."<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=411}}</ref> In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=386–389}}</ref> Rand underwent surgery for [[lung cancer]] in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=391–393}}</ref> In 1976, she retired from writing her newsletter and, despite her initial objections, was persuaded to allow Evva Pryor, a consultant from her attorney's office, to sign her up for [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]].<ref>{{harvnb|McConnell|2010|pp=520–521}}</ref> During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=392–395}}</ref> One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=406}}</ref> Rand died of [[heart failure]] on March 6, 1982, at her home in New York City,<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=410}}</ref> and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|pp=405, 410}}</ref> Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including [[Alan Greenspan]]. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=403}}</ref> In her will, Rand named [[Leonard Peikoff]] the heir to her estate.<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=400}}</ref> ==Philosophy== {{Objectivist movement}}{{Main|Objectivism (Ayn Rand)}} Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism," describing its essence as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|pp=1170–1171}}</ref> She considered Objectivism a [[systematic philosophy]] and laid out positions on [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[political philosophy]] and [[aesthetics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=2–3}}; {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=224}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=2}}</ref> In metaphysics, Rand supported [[philosophical realism]], and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion.<ref>Den Uyl, Douglas J. & Rasmussen, Douglas B. "Ayn Rand's Realism". In {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|pp=3–20}}</ref> In [[epistemology]], she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered [[axiom]]atic,<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=38–39}}; {{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|p=54}}</ref> and [[reason]], which she described as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=22}}</ref> She rejected all claims of non-perceptual or ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' knowledge, including "'instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing.'"<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1982|pp=62–63}}</ref> In her ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'', Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the [[analytic–synthetic dichotomy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Salmieri|Gotthelf|2005|p=1997}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|pp=85–86}}</ref> In ethics, Rand argued for [[rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]] (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1989|p=3}}</ref> She referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her [[The Virtue of Selfishness|book of that title]],<ref name="Kukathas">{{harvnb|Kukathas|1998|p=55}}</ref> in which she presented her solution to the [[is-ought problem]] by describing a [[meta-ethical]] theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival ''qua'' man."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=207, 219}}</ref> She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness,<ref>{{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}</ref> and held that the [[initiation of force]] was evil and irrational, writing in ''Atlas Shrugged'' that "Force and mind are opposites."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1023}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=313–320}}</ref> Rand's political philosophy emphasized [[individual rights]] (including [[Private property|property rights]]),<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=350–352}}</ref> and she considered ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights.<ref>{{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|pp=91–92}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=379–380}}</ref> She opposed [[statism]], which she understood to include [[theocracy]], [[absolute monarchy]], [[Nazism]], [[fascism]], [[communism]], [[democratic socialism]], and [[dictatorship]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=369}}</ref> Rand believed that rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=367}}</ref> Although her political views are often classified as [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] or [[libertarian]], she preferred the term "radical for capitalism." She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=174–177, 209, 230–231}}; {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|pp=225–226}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2007|pp=189–190}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=252}}</ref> She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with [[anarchism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=266–267}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=268–269}}</ref> She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in [[subjectivism]] that could only lead to collectivism in practice.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=280–281}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=371–372}}; {{harvnb|Merrill|1991|p=139}}</ref> Rand's aesthetics defined art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments." According to Rand, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=204–205}}</ref> As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature, where she considered [[romanticism]] to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human [[free will]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=428}}</ref> She described her own approach to literature as "[[romantic realism]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=207}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=437}}</ref> Rand acknowledged [[Aristotle]] as her greatest influence<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1171}}</ref> and remarked that in the [[history of philosophy]] she could only recommend "three A's" — Aristotle, [[Aquinas]], and Ayn Rand.<ref name="Sciabarra1995p12">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=12}}</ref> In a 1959 interview with [[Mike Wallace (journalist)|Mike Wallace]], when asked where her philosophy came from, she responded, "Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me. I devised the rest of my philosophy myself."<ref>{{harvnb|Podritske|Schwartz|2009|pp=174–175}}</ref> However, she also found early inspiration in [[Friedrich Nietzsche]],<ref>{{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=16, 22}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=100–106}}</ref> and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand's journals,<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1997|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=24–25}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|pp=136, 138–139}}</ref> in passages from the first edition of ''We the Living'' (which Rand later revised),<ref>{{harvnb|Merrill|1991|pp=38–39}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|p=135}}; Loiret-Prunet, Valerie. "Ayn Rand and Feminist Synthesis: Rereading ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=97}}</ref> and in her overall writing style.<ref>{{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2010}}; Sheaffer, Robert. "Rereading Rand on Gender in the Light of Paglia". In {{harvnb|Gladstein|Sciabarra|1999|p=313}}.</ref> However, by the time she wrote ''The Fountainhead'', Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas,<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=41, 68}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Merrill|1991|pp=47–49}}</ref> and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=303–304}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1998|pp=135, 137–138}}; Mayhew, Robert. "''We the Living'' '36 and '59". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|p=205}}.</ref> Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was [[Immanuel Kant]], whom she referred to as a "monster,"<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1971|p=4}}</ref> although philosophers George Walsh<ref name="Walsh">{{harvnb|Walsh|2000}}</ref> and Fred Seddon<ref>{{harvnb|Seddon|2003|pp=63–81}}</ref> have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences. Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her "theory of concepts, [her] ethics, and [her] discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=166}}</ref> She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy,<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution]] |chapter=The Left: Old and New |page=62 |isbn=0-452-01184-1 |oclc=39281836 |year=1999 |location=New York |publisher=Meridian |last=Rand |first=Ayn |others=Edited by Peter Schwartz}}</ref> stating, "I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1971|p=1}}</ref> ==Reception and legacy== {{See also|List of people influenced by Ayn Rand}} ===Reviews=== During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, ''We the Living'', was admired by the literary critic [[H. L. Mencken]],<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1995|pp=10, 13–14}}</ref> her Broadway play ''Night of January 16th'' was both a critical and popular success,<ref name="Branden 122-124">{{harvnb|Branden|1986|pp=122–124}}</ref> and ''The Fountainhead'' was hailed by a reviewer in ''[[The New York Times]]'' as "masterful".<ref name="Pruette">{{cite news |first=Lorine |last=Pruette |work=The New York Times |date=May 16, 1943 |title=Battle Against Evil |page=BR7 |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20610FD3D5C167B93C4A8178ED85F478485F9 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511114039/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20610FD3D5C167B93C4A8178ED85F478485F9 |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}} Reprinted in {{cite book |title=Books of the Century |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=McGrath |year=1998 |location=New York |publisher=Times Books |isbn=0-8129-2965-9 |oclc=38439024 |pages=135–136}}</ref> Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic.<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> However, they became [[bestseller]]s largely through word of mouth.<ref>{{harvnb|Paxton|1998|p=120}}; {{harvnb|Britting|2004|p=87}}</ref> The first reviews Rand received were for ''Night of January 16th''. Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer.<ref name="Branden 122-124"/> Rand believed that her first novel, ''We the Living'', was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner says "it was the most reviewed of any of her works", with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work.<ref>Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of ''We the Living''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2004|pp=147–151}}</ref> Her 1938 novella ''Anthem'' received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.<ref>Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of ''Anthem''". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2005a|pp=55–60}}</ref> Rand's first bestseller, ''The Fountainhead'', received far fewer reviews than ''We the Living'', and reviewers' opinions were mixed.<ref name="tfreviews">Berliner, Michael S. "''The Fountainhead'' Reviews". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2006|pp=77–82}}</ref> There was a positive review in ''The New York Times'' that Rand greatly appreciated.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1995|p=74}}</ref> The reviewer called Rand "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly", and stated that "you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time".<ref name="Pruette"/> There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications.<ref name="tfreviews"/> Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel,<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> such as one that called it "a whale of a book" and another that said "anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing". Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian".<ref name="tfreviews"/> Rand's 1957 novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' was widely reviewed, and many of the reviews were strongly negative.<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/><ref name="asreviews">Berliner, Michael S. "The ''Atlas Shrugged'' Reviews". In {{harvnb|Mayhew|2009|pp=133–137}}</ref> In the ''[[National Review]]'', conservative author [[Whittaker Chambers]] called the book "sophomoric" and "remarkably silly". He described the tone of the book as "shrillness without reprieve" and accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the [[Religion in the Soviet Union|Soviets]]), claiming "From almost any page of ''Atlas Shrugged'', a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!{{' "}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chambers |first=Whittaker |authorlink=Whittaker Chambers |title=Big Sister is Watching You |journal=[[National Review]] |pages=594–596 |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/222482/big-sister-watching-you/flashback |date=December 8, 1957 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511214136/http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/222482/big-sister-watching-you/flashback |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ''Atlas Shrugged'' received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer [[John Chamberlain (journalist)|John Chamberlain]],<ref name="asreviews"/> but Rand scholar [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein]] later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs", calling it "execrable claptrap" and "a nightmare"; they said it was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity".<ref name="Gladstein 117-119"/> Author [[Flannery O'Connor]] wrote in a letter to a friend that "The fiction of Ayn Rand is as low as you can get re fiction. I hope you picked it up off the floor of the subway and threw it in the nearest garbage pail."<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Connor |first=Flannery |title=The Habit of Being: Letters of Flannery O'Connor |editor-first=Sally |editor-last=Fitzgerald |location=New York |publisher=Farrar, Straus, and Giroux |year=1979 |isbn=0-374-52104-2 |oclc=18175642 |page=398}}</ref> Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'', was similar to that for ''Atlas Shrugged'',<ref name="Gladstein119">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=119}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=193–194}}</ref> with philosopher [[Sidney Hook]] likening her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union",<ref>{{cite news |first=Sidney |last=Hook |authorlink=Sidney Hook |title=Each Man for Himself |work=[[The New York Times Book Review]] |date=April 9, 1961 |page=28 |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70914F83B5B147A93CBA9178FD85F458685F9 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511114045/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70914F83B5B147A93CBA9178FD85F458685F9 |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> and author [[Gore Vidal]] calling her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality".<ref>{{cite book |first=Gore |last=Vidal |authorlink=Gore Vidal |title=Rocking the Boat |chapter=Two Immoralists: Orville Prescott and Ayn Rand |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=1962 |oclc=291123 |page=234}} Reprinted from ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'', July 1961.</ref> Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers.<ref name="Gladstein119"/> On the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth in 2005, Edward Rothstein, writing for ''The New York Times'', referred to her fictional writing as quaint [[utopian]] "retro fantasy" and programmatic [[neo-Romanticism]] of the misunderstood artist, while criticizing her characters' "isolated rejection of democratic society".<ref name="NYT100">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/02/books/02rand.html?pagewanted=all |work=The New York Times |title=Considering the Last Romantic, Ayn Rand, at 100 |first=Edward |last=Rothstein |date=February 2, 2005 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110512144841/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/02/books/02rand.html?pagewanted=all |archivedate=May 12, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> In 2007, book critic Leslie Clark described her fiction as "romance novels with a patina of [[pseudo-philosophy]]".<ref>{{cite news |first=Leslie |last=Clark |title=The philosophical art of looking out number one |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/the-philosophical-art-of-looking-out-number-one-1.835066 |work=[[The Herald (Glasgow)|The Herald]] |date=February 17, 2007 |accessdate=April 2, 2010}}</ref> In 2009, ''[[GQ]]''{{'}}s critic columnist Tom Carson described her books as "capitalism's version of middlebrow religious novels" such as ''[[Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ|Ben-Hur]]'' and the ''[[Left Behind]]'' series.<ref name = "GQB">{{cite journal |url=http://www.gq.com/entertainment/books/200911/ayn-rand-dick-books-fountainhead?printable=true |title=The Bitch is Back |first=Andrew |last=Corsello |journal=[[GQ]] |publisher=Condé Nast Publications |date=October 27, 2009 |accessdate=April 9, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110514133528/http://www.gq.com/entertainment/books/200911/ayn-rand-dick-books-fountainhead?printable=true |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Popular interest=== [[File:Ayn Rand quote, American Adventure, Epcot Center, Walt Disney World.jpg.jpg|thumb|right|alt=An engraving in all capital letters that reads: "Throughout the centuries there were men who took first steps down new roads armed with nothing but their own vision." Ayn Rand|A quote from Rand's book ''The Fountainhead'', on the wall directly across from the entrance to [[The American Adventure]] rotunda at [[Walt Disney World Resort|Walt Disney World's]] [[Epcot]]]] In 1991, a survey conducted for the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's ''Atlas Shrugged'' was the second most popular choice, after the [[Bible]].<ref name="Doherty11">{{harvnb|Doherty|2007|p=11}}</ref> Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with over 29&nbsp;million copies sold as of 2013 (with about 10% of that total purchased for free distribution to schools by the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=28024 |title=Ayn Rand Hits a Million...Again! |publisher=Ayn Rand Institute |date=May 14, 2013 |accessdate=July 3, 2013}}</ref> Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=384–386}}; {{cite book |last=Delbroy |first=Bibek |authorlink=Bibek Debroy |chapter=Ayn Rand—The Indian Connection |title=Ayn Rand at 100 |editor-last=Machan |editor-first=Tibor R |editor-link=Tibor R. Machan |location=New Delhi, India |publisher=Pragun Publications |year=2006 |isbn=81-89645-57-9 |oclc=76829742 |pages=2–4}}; {{cite news |last=Cohen |first=David |url=http://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/dec/07/internationaleducationnews.highereducation |title=A growing concern |work=The Guardian |date=December 7, 2001 |location=London |accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref> Rand's work continues to be among the top sellers among books in India.<ref>[[Agence France-Presse]]/[[Jiji Press]], "In India, Ayn Rand never out of style", ''[[Japan Times]]'', June 2, 2012, p. 4</ref> Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, such as [[Ira Levin]], [[Kay Nolte Smith]] and [[L. Neil Smith]], and later writers such as [[Erika Holzer]] and [[Terry Goodkind]] have been influenced by her.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Riggenbach |first=Jeff |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |title=Ayn Rand's Influence on American Popular Fiction |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=Fall 2004 |pages=91–144 |url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars6-1/jars6_1jriggenbach.pdf |accessdate=April 20, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110514042655/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars6-1/jars6_1jriggenbach.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=no |jstor=41560271 }}</ref> Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include [[comic book]] artist [[Steve Ditko]]<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|pp=8–11}}</ref> and musician [[Neil Peart]] of [[Rush (band)|Rush]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |authorlink=Chris Matthew Sciabarra |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |title=Rand, Rush, and Rock |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=Fall 2002 |pages=161–185 |url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/rush.htm |accessdate=April 20, 2011}}</ref> Rand provided a positive view of business, and in response business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=168–171}}</ref> [[John A. Allison IV|John Allison]] of BB&T and [[Ed Snider]] of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas,<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=298}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=419}}</ref> while [[Mark Cuban]], owner of the Dallas Mavericks, and [[John P. Mackey]], CEO of Whole Foods, among others, have said they consider Rand crucial to their success.<ref name="NYTimes07">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html?_r=3&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print |work=The New York Times |title=Ayn Rand's Literature of Capitalism |first=Harriet |last=Rubin |date=September 15, 2007 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110512144741/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html?_r=3&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print |archivedate=May 12, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media: on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows,<ref name="illustrated4-5">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|pp=4–5}}</ref> as well as in movies and video games.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=282}}</ref> She, or characters based on her, figure prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2004|p=3}}</ref> [[Nick Gillespie]], editor in chief of ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', has remarked that "Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist..." and that "jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman, run through the popular culture".<ref>{{cite episode |title=Book Bag: Marking the Ayn Rand Centennial |episodelink= |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4475441 |series=Day to Day |serieslink=Day to Day |credits= |network=National Public Radio |airdate=February 2, 2005 |credits=[[Alex Chadwick]] (host), Nick Gillespie (contributor)}}</ref> Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, ''[[Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life]]'', was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=128}}</ref> ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand (film)|The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', a 1999 television adaptation of the [[The Passion of Ayn Rand (book)|book of the same name]], won several awards.<ref name="Gladstein122">{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=122}}</ref> Rand's image also appears on a [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|U.S. postage stamp]] designed by artist [[Nick Gaetano]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Krause-Minkus Standard Catalog of U.S. Stamps |editor-first=Maurice D. |editor-last=Wozniak |publisher=[[Krause Publications]] |year=2001 |edition=5th |isbn=0-87349-321-4 |oclc=48663542 |page=380}}</ref> ===Political influence=== {{See also|Libertarianism and Objectivism}} Although she rejected the labels "[[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]]" and "[[libertarian]]",<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=258}}; {{harvnb|Rand|2005|p=73}}</ref> Rand has had continuing influence on [[right-wing politics]] and libertarianism.<ref name="politicalinfluence"/> [[Jim Powell (historian)|Jim Powell]], a senior fellow at the [[Cato Institute]], considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with [[Rose Wilder Lane]] and [[Isabel Paterson]]) of modern [[American libertarianism]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Powell |first=Jim |authorlink=Jim Powell (historian) |title=Rose Wilder Lane, Isabel Paterson, and Ayn Rand: Three Women Who Inspired the Modern Libertarian Movement |url=http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/rose-wilder-lane-isabel-paterson-and-ayn-rand-three-women-who-inspired-the-modern-libertarian-movement/ |journal=[[The Freeman|The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty]] |date=May 1996 |volume=46 |issue=5 |page=322 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511104313/http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/rose-wilder-lane-isabel-paterson-and-ayn-rand-three-women-who-inspired-the-modern-libertarian-movement/ |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> and [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]], one of the founders of the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], stated that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist".<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1986|p=414}}</ref> In his history of the [[libertarian movement]], journalist [[Brian Doherty (journalist)|Brian Doherty]] described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large",<ref name="Doherty11" /> and biographer Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=4}}</ref> [[File:TDTP08.JPG|thumb|left|A protester at an April 2009 [[Tea Party protests|Tea Party rally]] carries a sign referring to [[John Galt]], the hero of Rand's novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''|alt=In a large outdoor crowd, a man holds up a poster with the words "I am John Galt" in all capital letters]] She faced intense opposition from [[William F. Buckley, Jr.]] and other contributors for the ''[[National Review]]'' magazine. They published numerous criticisms in the 1950s and 1960s by [[Whittaker Chambers]], [[Garry Wills]], and [[M. Stanton Evans]]. Nevertheless, her influence among conservatives forced Buckley and other ''National Review'' contributors to reconsider how traditional notions of virtue and Christianity could be integrated with support for capitalism.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2004}}</ref> The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the United States Republican Party),<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=54}}</ref> despite Rand taking some positions that are atypical for conservatives, such as being [[pro-choice]] and an atheist.<ref name="MJones">{{cite journal |url=http://motherjones.com/media/2009/07/and-rand-played |title=And the Rand Played On |first=Amy |last=Benfer |work=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |date=July/August 2009 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110503215311/http://motherjones.com/media/2009/07/and-rand-played |archivedate=May 3, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> A 1987 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'' referred to her as the [[Reagan administration]]'s "novelist laureate".<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=279}}</ref> Republican [[United States Congress|Congressmen]] and conservative [[pundits]] have acknowledged her influence on their lives and recommended her novels.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Heller|2009|p=xi}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=283}}</ref> The [[late-2000s financial crisis]] spurred renewed interest in her works, especially ''Atlas Shrugged'', which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis,<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=283–284}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=51–52}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=125}}</ref> and opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=125}}; {{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=54}}</ref> During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero [[John Galt]] appeared at [[Tea Party protests]].<ref>{{harvnb|Doherty|2009|pp=51–52}}</ref> There was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the [[political left]], with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of [[Rational egoism|selfishness]] and [[free markets]], particularly through her influence on [[Alan Greenspan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=283}}</ref> For example, ''[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]'' remarked that "Rand's particular genius has always been her ability to turn upside down traditional hierarchies and recast the wealthy, the talented, and the powerful as the oppressed",<ref name="MJones" /> while ''[[The Nation]]'' alleged similarities between the "moral syntax of Randianism" and fascism.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Corey |last=Robin |title=Garbage and Gravitas |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/garbage-and-gravitas |journal=[[The Nation]] |date=June 7, 2010 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110514200011/http://www.thenation.com/article/garbage-and-gravitas |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> ===Academic reaction=== During Rand's lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars.<ref name="reception"/> When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously.<ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1977|p=3}}</ref> A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in ''[[The Personalist]]''.<ref name="Gladstein115">{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=115}}</ref> One of these was "On the Randian Argument" by libertarian philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], who argued that her [[meta-ethical]] argument is unsound and fails to solve the [[is–ought problem]] posed by [[David Hume]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=On the Randian Argument |last=Nozick |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Nozick |journal=[[The Personalist]] |date=Spring 1971 |volume=52 |pages=282–304}}</ref> Some responses to Nozick by other academic philosophers were also published in ''The Personalist'' arguing that Nozick misstated Rand's case.<ref name="Gladstein115" /> Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Academic Mimi Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=373–374, 379–381}}</ref> Since Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=114–122}}; {{harvnb|Salmieri|Gotthelf|2005|p=1995}}; {{cite journal |last=McLemee |first=Scott |url=http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9909/rand.html |title=The Heirs Of Ayn Rand: Has Objectivism Gone Subjective? |journal=[[Lingua Franca (magazine)|Lingua Franca]] |date=September 1999 |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=45–55 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110515004459/http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9909/rand.html |archivedate=May 15, 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Historian Jennifer Burns has identified "three overlapping waves" of scholarly interest in Rand, the most recent of which is "an explosion of scholarship" since the year 2000.<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=295–296}}</ref> However, few universities currently include Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=116}}</ref> Gladstein, [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra]], [[Allan Gotthelf]], [[Edwin A. Locke]] and [[Tara Smith (philosopher)|Tara Smith]] have taught her work in academic institutions. Sciabarra co-edits the ''[[Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]'', a nonpartisan [[peer-reviewed journal]] dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=118}}</ref> In 1987 Gotthelf helped found the Ayn Rand Society with George Walsh and David Kelley, and has been active in sponsoring seminars about Rand and her ideas.<ref>{{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|pp=2, 25}}; {{cite journal |first=William |last=Thomas |title=Ayn Rand Through Two Lenses |journal=Navigator |date=April 2000 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=15–19 |url=http://www.atlassociety.org/on-ayn-rand-gotthelf}}</ref> Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist'', a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by [[Cambridge University Press]]. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at [[Clemson University|Clemson]] and [[Duke University|Duke]] universities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rutlandherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050515/NEWS/505150346/1014 |title=Ayn Rand at 100: An 'ism' struts its stuff |first=Benjamin |last=Harvey |work=[[Rutland Herald]] |agency=Columbia News Service |date=May 15, 2005 |accessdate=June 4, 2009}}</ref> Scholars of English and American literature have largely ignored her work,<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|p=375}}</ref> although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2003|pp=384–391}}</ref> Rand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and [[Douglas B. Rasmussen]], while stressing the importance and originality of her thought, describe her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional".<ref>{{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1978|p=203}}</ref> Philosopher Jack Wheeler says that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage", Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought."<ref>Wheeler, Jack. "Rand and Aristotle". In {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1986|p=96}}</ref> In the ''[[The Literary Encyclopedia (English)|Literary Encyclopedia]]'' entry for Rand written in 2001, [[John David Lewis]] declared that "Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation".<ref>{{cite web |last=Lewis |first=John David |authorlink=John David Lewis |url=http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=3705 |work=[[The Literary Encyclopedia (English)|The Literary Encyclopedia]] |title=Ayn Rand |accessdate=August 2, 2009 |date=October 20, 2001}}</ref> In a 1999 interview in the ''[[Chronicle of Higher Education]],'' Sciabarra commented, "I know they laugh at Rand", while forecasting a growth of interest in her work in the academic community.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sharlet |first=Jeff |authorlink=Jeff Sharlet (writer) |work=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]] |url=http://chronicle.com/article/Ayn-Rand-Has-Finally-Caught/20237/ |title=Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars |date=April 9, 1999 |volume=45 |issue=31 |pages=A17–A18 |accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref> Libertarian philosopher [[Michael Huemer]] has argued that very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics,<ref name="whyrand">{{cite web |first=Michael |last=Huemer |url=http://www.cato-unbound.org/2010/01/22/michael-huemer/why-ayn-rand-some-alternate-answers |title=Why Ayn Rand? Some Alternate Answers |work=[[Cato Unbound]] |date=January 22, 2010 |accessdate=August 18, 2012}}</ref> which he believes is difficult to interpret and may lack logical coherence.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Michael |last=Humer |title=Is Benevolent Egoism Coherent? |work=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |date=Spring 2002 |pages=259–288 |url=http://aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars3-2/jars3_2mhuemer.pdf |archiveurl=http://wayback.archive.org/web/20110915095043/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars3-2/jars3_2mhuemer.pdf |archivedate=September 15, 2011}}</ref> He attributes the attention she receives to her being a "compelling writer", especially as a novelist. Thus, ''Atlas Shrugged'' outsells not only the works of other philosophers of [[classical liberalism]] such as [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], or [[Frederic Bastiat]], but also Rand's own non-fiction works.<ref name="whyrand"/> Political scientist [[Charles Murray (author)|Charles Murray]], while praising Rand's literary accomplishments, criticizes her claim that her only "philosophical debt" was to Aristotle, instead asserting that her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as [[John Locke]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. According to Murray, "By insisting that Objectivism had sprung full blown from her own mind, with just a little help from Aristotle, Rand was being childish, as well as out of touch with reality."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1708/article_detail.asp |publisher=The Claremont Institute |title=Who is Ayn Rand? |first=Charles |last=Murray |year=2010 |accessdate=December 7, 2012}}</ref> Although Rand maintained that Objectivism was an integrated philosophical system, philosopher Robert H. Bass has argued that her central ethical ideas are inconsistent and contradictory to her central political ideas.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert H. |last=Bass |title=Egoism versus Rights |work=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |date=Spring 2006 |pages=329–349 |url=http://aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars7-2/jars7_2rbass1.pdf |archiveurl=http://wayback.archive.org/web/20121105111109/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars7-2/jars7_2rbass1.pdf |archivedate=November 5, 2012}}</ref> ===Objectivist movement=== {{Main|Objectivist movement}} In 1985, Rand's heir Leonard Peikoff established the [[Ayn Rand Institute]], a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, philosopher [[David Kelley]] founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as [[The Atlas Society]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=280–281}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=19, 114}}</ref> In 2001 historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|p=117}}</ref> The charitable foundation of [[BB&T Corporation]] has also given grants for teaching Rand's ideas or works. The [[University of Texas at Austin]], the [[University of Pittsburgh]], and [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] are among the schools that have received grants. In some cases these grants have been controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=116–117}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=297}}</ref> ==Selected works== {{main|Bibliography of Ayn Rand and Objectivism}} <!-- NOTE: This is a selected bibliography and not meant to be comprehensive. Only major works published in her lifetime are included. Please start a discussion on the talkpage if you think the selection ought to be altered. Thank you. --> ;Novels * 1936 ''[[We the Living]]'' * 1943 ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' * 1957 ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' ;Other fiction * 1934 ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' * 1938 ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' ;Non-fiction * 1961 ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'' * 1964 ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' * 1966 ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' * 1969 ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' * 1971 ''[[The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution]]'' * 1979 ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' * 1982 ''[[Philosophy: Who Needs It]]'' ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ===Works cited=== {{Refbegin|2}} * {{Cite web |ref=harv |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ayn-rand/ |title=Ayn Rand |last1=Badhwar |first1=Neera |last2=Long |first2=Roderick T. |authorlink2=Roderick Long |editor-first=Edward N. (ed) |editor-last=Zalta |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |date=June 8, 2010 |work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |accessdate=June 16, 2010}} *{{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand |last=Baker |first=James T. |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Twayne Publishers |year=1987 |oclc=14933003 |isbn=0-8057-7497-1}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=On Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism |last=Barry |first=Norman P. |authorlink=Norman P. Barry |location=New York |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=0-312-00243-2 |oclc=14134854}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[The Passion of Ayn Rand]] |last=Branden |first=Barbara |authorlink=Barbara Branden |location=Garden City, New York |publisher=Doubleday & Company |year=1986 |isbn=0-385-19171-5 |oclc=12614728}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand |last=Britting |first=Jeff |authorlink=Jeff Britting |location=New York |publisher=Overlook Duckworth |year=2004 |isbn=1-58567-406-0 |oclc=56413971 |series=Overlook Illustrated Lives series}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Burns |first=Jennifer |date=November 2004 |title=Godless Capitalism: Ayn Rand and the Conservative Movement |journal=Modern Intellectual History |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=359–385 |doi=10.1017/S1479244304000216}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right]] |last=Burns |first=Jennifer |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-532487-7 |oclc=313665028}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |title=Nozick On the Randian Argument |last1=Den Uyl |first1=Douglas |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Douglas |journal=[[The Personalist]] |date=April 1978 |volume=59 |pages=184–205 |lastauthoramp=y}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand |editor1-last=Den Uyl |editor1-first=Douglas |editor1-link=Douglas Den Uyl |editor2-last=Rasmussen |editor2-first=Douglas |editor2-link=Douglas B. Rasmussen |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=1986 |origyear=1984 |isbn=0-252-01407-3 |edition=paperback |lastauthoramp=y |oclc=15669115}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement]] |last=Doherty |first=Brian |authorlink=Brian Doherty (journalist) |location=New York |publisher=Public Affairs |year=2007 |isbn=1-58648-350-1 |oclc=76141517}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |first=Brian |last=Doherty |title=She's Back! |url=http://reason.com/archives/2009/11/09/ayn-rand-is-back/singlepage |journal=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]] |date=December 2009 |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=51–58 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511102914/http://reason.com/archives/2009/11/09/ayn-rand-is-back/singlepage |archivedate=May 11, 2011 |deadurl=no}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=The New Ayn Rand Companion |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |authorlink=Mimi Reisel Gladstein |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30321-5 |oclc=40359365}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |location=New York |publisher=Twayne Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=0-8057-1638-6 |oclc=43569158 |series=Twayne's Masterwork Studies series}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand Literary Criticism |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |date=Spring 2003 |pages=373–394 |url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars4-2/jars4_2mgladstein.pdf |accessdate=April 20, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110514042510/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars4-2/jars4_2mgladstein.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=yes |jstor=41560226}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |location=New York |publisher=Continuum |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8264-4513-1 |oclc=319595162 |series=Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers series}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand |editor1-last=Gladstein |editor1-first=Mimi Reisel |editor2-last=Sciabarra |editor2-first=Chris Matthew |editor1-link=Mimi Reisel Gladstein |editor2-link=Chris Matthew Sciabarra |location=University Park, Pennsylvania |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-271-01830-5 |oclc=38885754 |series=Re-reading the Canon series |lastauthoramp=y}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[On Ayn Rand]] |last=Gotthelf |first=Allan |authorlink=Allan Gotthelf |location=Belmont, California |publisher=Wadsworth Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=0-534-57625-7 |oclc=43668181 |series=Wadsworth Philosophers Series}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Ayn Rand and the World She Made]] |last=Heller |first=Anne C. |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-385-51399-9 |oclc=229027437}} * {{Cite encyclopedia |ref=harv |last=Kukathas |first=Chandran |authorlink=Chandran Kukathas |year=1998 |title=Rand, Ayn (1905–82) |editor-last=Craig |editor-first=Edward (ed) |encyclopedia=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |volume=8 |pages=55–56 |isbn=0-415-07310-3 |oclc=318280731}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2004 |isbn=0-7391-0697-X |oclc=52979186}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005a |isbn=0-7391-1031-4 |oclc=57577415}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand and Song of Russia |last=Mayhew |first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2005b |isbn=0-8108-5276-4 |oclc=55474309}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=0-7391-1578-2 |oclc=70707828}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7391-2780-3 |oclc=315237945}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=100 Voices: An Oral History of Ayn Rand |last=McConnell |first=Scott |location=New York |publisher=[[New American Library]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-451-23130-7 |oclc=555642813}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=The Ideas of Ayn Rand |last=Merrill |first=Ronald E. |location=La Salle, Illinois |publisher=Open Court Publishing |year=1991 |isbn=0-8126-9157-1 |oclc=23254190}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=With Charity Toward None: An Analysis of Ayn Rand's Philosophy |last=O'Neill |first=William F. |location=New York |publisher=Littlefield, Adams & Company |year=1977 |origyear=1971 |isbn=0-8226-0179-6 |oclc=133489}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life]] (The Companion Book) |last=Paxton |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Paxton |location=Layton, Utah |publisher=Gibbs Smith |year=1998 |isbn=0-87905-845-5 |oclc=38048196}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand]] |last=Peikoff |first=Leonard |authorlink=Leonard Peikoff |location=New York |publisher=[[E. P. Dutton]] |year=1991 |isbn=0-452-01101-9 |oclc=28423965}} *{{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Objectively Speaking: Ayn Rand Interviewed |editor1-last=Podritske |editor1-first=Marlene |editor2-last=Schwartz |editor2-first=Peter |editor2-link=Peter Schwartz (writer) |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7391-3195-4 |oclc=267048088 |lastauthoramp=y}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=[[The Virtue of Selfishness]] |isbn=0-451-16393-1 |oclc=28103453 |year=1964 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=Brief Summary |journal=[[The Objectivist]] |date=September 1971 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=1–4}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=[[Philosophy: Who Needs It]] |editor-last=Peikoff |editor-first=Leonard |year=1982 |location=New York |publisher=Signet |edition=paperback |isbn=0-451-13249-1}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[The Voice of Reason]] |first=Ayn |last=Rand |editor-first=Leonard |editor-last=Peikoff |location=New York |publisher=New American Library |year=1989 |isbn=0-453-00634-5 |oclc=18048955}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=[[Atlas Shrugged]] |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |year=1992 |origyear=1957 |edition=35th anniversary |isbn=0-525-94892-9 |oclc=60339555}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Letters of Ayn Rand]] |last=Rand |first=Ayn |editor-first=Michael S |editor-last=Berliner |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |year=1995 |isbn=0-525-93946-6 |oclc=31412028}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |editor-last=Harriman |editor-first=David |title=[[Journals of Ayn Rand]] |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |year=1997 |isbn=0-525-94370-6 |oclc=36566117}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Rand |first=Ayn |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |year=2005 |title=Ayn Rand Answers, the Best of Her Q&A |isbn=0-451-21665-2 |oclc=59148253 |publisher=New American Library |location=New York}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |editor-first=John R. |editor-last=Shook |first1=Gregory |last1=Salmieri |first2=Allan |last2=Gotthelf |author2-link=Allan Gotthelf |chapter=Rand, Ayn (1905–82) |title=The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers |publisher=Thoemmes Continuum |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=1-84371-037-4 |oclc=53388453 |lastauthoramp=y |volume=4 |pages=1995–1999}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=[[Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical]] |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |authorlink=Chris Matthew Sciabarra |location=University Park, Pennsylvania |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-271-01440-7 |oclc=31133644}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |title=A Renaissance in Rand Scholarship |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |journal=Reason Papers |volume=23 |date=Fall 1998 |pages=132–159 |url=http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/23/rp_23_16.pdf |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110513120014/http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/23/rp_23_16.pdf |archivedate=May 13, 2011 |deadurl=no}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars1-1/jars1_1csciabarra.pdf |title=The Rand Transcript |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=Fall 1999 |pages=1–26 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110514042557/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars1-1/jars1_1csciabarra.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=yes |jstor=41560109}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |title=The Illustrated Rand |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=Fall 2004 |url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/illustratedrand.pdf |pages=1–20 |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20121012191607/http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/illustratedrand.pdf |archivedate=October 12, 2012 |deadurl=no |jstor=41560268}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Seddon |first=Fred |title=Ayn Rand, Objectivists, and the History of Philosophy |publisher=University Press of America |location=Lanham, Maryland |year=2003 |pages=63–81 |isbn=0-7618-2308-5 |oclc=51969016}} * {{Cite journal |ref=harv |last=Walsh |first=George V. |title=Ayn Rand and the Metaphysics of Kant |journal=[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]] |date=Fall 2000 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=69–103 |url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars2-1/jars2_1gwalsh.pdf |accessdate=April 15, 2011 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110514042532/http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars2-1/jars2_1gwalsh.pdf |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |deadurl=yes |jstor=41560132}} * {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion |editor-last=Younkins |editor-first=Edward W. |location=Burlington, Vermont |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7546-5533-6 |oclc=69792104}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=no|Ayn Rand|n=no|v=no|wikt=no|b=no|author=yes}} {{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2007-06-02|Ayn_Rand1.ogg|Ayn_Rand2.ogg|...}} * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html Ayn Rand Biographical FAQ] from the Objectivism Reference Center * [http://ari.aynrand.org/faq Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand] from the [[Ayn Rand Institute]] * [http://www.cato-unbound.org/january-2010-whats-living-and-dead-in-ayn-rands-moral-and-political-thought/ What's Living and Dead in Ayn Rand's Moral and Political Thought] by the [[Cato Institute]] * {{worldcat id|lccn-n50-54463}} * {{gutenberg author|Ayn+Rand}} * [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms002006 Rand's papers at The Library of Congress] * [http://www.aynrandlexicon.com Ayn Rand Lexicon] – searchable database * [http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/rand.asp Ayn Rand] at [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' * {{IEP|r/rand.htm}} * {{SEP|ayn-rand|Ayn Rand|Neera K. Badhwar and Roderick T. Long|October 4, 2010}} * {{IMDb name|0709446}} * {{OL author|OL59188A}} * {{Find a Grave|851|accessdate=June 10, 2013}} {{Ayn Rand|state=expanded}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Criticism of religion}} {{Atlas Shrugged}} {{Authority control |GND=118903012 |LCCN=n/50/54463 |VIAF=98139134}} {{Persondata<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --> |NAME= Rand, Ayn |ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Rosenbaum, Alisa Zinov'yevna; Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум (Russian) |SHORT DESCRIPTION = novelist, philosopher, playwright, screenwriter |DATE OF BIRTH = February 2, 1905 |PLACE OF BIRTH = Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire |DATE OF DEATH = March 6, 1982 |PLACE OF DEATH = New York City }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rand, Ayn}} [[Category:Ayn Rand|*]] [[Category:1905 births]] [[Category:1982 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century American novelists]] [[Category:20th-century philosophers]] [[Category:20th-century women writers]] [[Category:American anti-communists]] [[Category:American anti-fascists]] [[Category:American atheists]] [[Category:American ethicists]] [[Category:American libertarians]] [[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]] [[Category:American philosophers]] [[Category:American science fiction writers]] [[Category:American screenwriters]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American women novelists]] [[Category:American women philosophers]] [[Category:American writers of Russian descent]] [[Category:Atheism activists]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers]] [[Category:Burials at Kensico Cemetery]] [[Category:Cardiovascular disease deaths in New York]] [[Category:Classical liberals]] [[Category:Critics of feminism]] [[Category:Critics of religions]] [[Category:Deaths from heart failure]] [[Category:Epistemologists]] [[Category:Imperial Russian atheists]] [[Category:Imperial Russian Jews]] [[Category:Jewish American dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Jewish American novelists]] [[Category:Jewish atheists]] [[Category:Jewish philosophers]] [[Category:Jewish women writers]] [[Category:Libertarian theorists]] [[Category:Metaphysicians]] [[Category:Objectivists]] [[Category:People from Saint Petersburg]] [[Category:Philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Political philosophers]] [[Category:Political theorists]] [[Category:Prometheus Award winners]] [[Category:Pseudonymous writers]] [[Category:Russian anti-communists]] [[Category:Russian anti-fascists]] [[Category:Russian dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Russian essayists]] [[Category:Russian libertarians]] [[Category:Russian novelists]] [[Category:Russian philosophers]] [[Category:Russian science fiction writers]] [[Category:Russian screenwriters]] [[Category:Russian women writers]] [[Category:Saint Petersburg State University alumni]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:Women essayists]] [[Category:Women science fiction and fantasy writers]] [[Category:Women screenwriters]] [[Category:Writers from New York City]] {{Link FA|la}} {{Link FA|he}} {{Link GA|zh}} {{Link GA|fr}} 3zyae4ylar2pl60j1kewgiagsaqqoqj wikitext text/x-wiki 0 340 600236034 562872490 2014-03-19T00:01:24Z Suslindisambiguator 12329968 {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{More footnotes|date=February 2012}} {{Infobox scientist |name = Alain Connes |image = Alain_Connes.jpg |image_size = 200px |caption = Alain Connes in 2004 |birth_date = {{birth date and age|1947|04|01|df=y}} |birth_place = [[Draguignan]], France |death_date = |death_place = |nationality = French |field = [[Mathematics]] |work_institutions = [[IHÉS]], France |alma_mater = [[École Normale Supérieure]], France |doctoral_advisor = [[Jacques Dixmier]] |doctoral_students = [[Benjamin Enriquez]]<br>[[Georges Skandalis]]<br>[[Alain Valette]]<br>[[Jean-Benoît Bost]] |known_for = [[Baum–Connes conjecture]]<br>[[Noncommutative geometry]]<br>[[Operator algebra]]s |prizes = [[Fields Medal]] (1982)<br/>[[Crafoord Prize]] (2001)<br/>[[CNRS]] Gold Medal (2004) |footnotes = }} '''Alain Connes''' ({{IPA-fr|alɛ̃ kɔn|lang}}; born 1 April 1947) is a French [[mathematician]], currently Professor at the [[Collège de France]], [[IHÉS]], [[The Ohio State University]] and [[Vanderbilt University]]. ==Work== Alain Connes studies [[operator algebra]]s. In his early work on [[von Neumann algebras]] in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective [[Von Neumann algebra#Factors|factor]]s. Following this he made contributions in [[K-theory|operator K-theory]] and [[index theory]], which culminated in the [[Baum-Connes conjecture]]. He also introduced [[cyclic homology|cyclic cohomology]] in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of [[noncommutative geometry|noncommutative differential geometry]]. Connes has applied his work in areas of [[mathematics]] and [[theoretical physics]], including [[number theory]], [[differential geometry]] and [[particle physics]].<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-geometer-of-particle Scientific Americain, ''The Geometer of Particle Physics'', July 24, 2006]</ref> ==Awards and honours== Connes was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in 1982, the [[Crafoord Prize]] in 2001 and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. He is a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] and several foreign academies and societies, including the [[Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters|Danish Academy of Sciences]], [[Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters|Norwegian Academy of Sciences]], [[Russian Academy of Sciences]], and [[United States National Academy of Sciences|US National Academy of Sciences]]. ==Books== * Alain Connes and [[Matilde Marcolli]]: ''Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives'', Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, ISBN 978-0821842102 * Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, Jennifer Gage (translator): ''Triangle of Thought'', American Mathematical Society, 2001, ISBN 978-0821826140 * [[Jean-Pierre Changeux]], Alain Connes, M. B. DeBevoise (translator): ''Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics'', Princeton University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0691004051 * Alain Connes: ''Noncommutative Geometry'', Academic Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0121858605<ref>{{cite journal|author=Segal, Irving|authorlink=Irving Segal|title=Review: ''Noncommutative geometry'', by Alain Connes|journal=Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.)|year=1996|volume=33|issue=4|pages=459–465|url=http://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1996-33-04/S0273-0979-96-00687-8/S0273-0979-96-00687-8.pdf}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Cyclic homology]] * [[Factor (functional analysis)]] * [[Higgs boson]] * [[C*-algebra]] * [[M Theory]] * [[Groupoid]] *[[Criticism of non-standard analysis]] ==External links== {{reflist}} * [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site] containing [http://www.alainconnes.org/en/downloads.php downloadable papers], and his book [http://www.alainconnes.org/docs/book94bigpdf.pdf ''Non-commutative geometry''], ISBN 0-12-185860-X. * {{nlab|id=Alain+Connes|title=Alain Connes}} * [http://resonaances.blogspot.com/2007/02/alain-connes-standard-model.html Alain Connes' Standard Model] * An [http://www.ipm.ac.ir/ViewNewsInfo.jsp?NTID=227 interview with Alain Connes] and a [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=313 discussion about it] * {{MacTutor|id=Connes}} * {{MathGenealogy|id=34220}} {{Fields medalists}} {{Authority control|PND=112614760|LCCN=n/80/137982|VIAF=14800882|SELIBR=}} {{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. --> | NAME =Connes, Alain | ALTERNATIVE NAMES = | SHORT DESCRIPTION =Mathematician | DATE OF BIRTH =1 April 1947 | PLACE OF BIRTH =Draguignan, France | DATE OF DEATH = | PLACE OF DEATH = }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Connes, Alain}} [[Category:1947 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:20th-century mathematicians]] [[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:21st-century mathematicians]] [[Category:Collège de France faculty]] [[Category:French mathematicians]] [[Category:Fields Medalists]] [[Category:Mathematical analysts]] [[Category:Differential geometers]] [[Category:École Normale Supérieure alumni]] [[Category:Vanderbilt University faculty]] [[Category:Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters]] [[Category:Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters]] [[Category:Clay Research Award recipients]] c15xph0uswp5c2bfqqetpppr5fgmmba wikitext text/x-wiki 0 344 594986667 591347995 2014-02-11T15:10:13Z All Hallow's Wraith 5044346 {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}} {{Infobox person | name = Allan Dwan | image = AllanDwan.jpg | caption = Dwan during his earlier years in silent film |birth_name=Joseph Aloysius Dwan | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1885|04|03}} | birth_place = [[Toronto]], Canada | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1981|12|28|1885|4|3}} | death_place = Los Angeles, United States | spouse = [[Pauline Bush (actress)|Pauline Bush]] (1915–1919) <br /> Marie Shelton (1927–1949) | occupation = Film director<br>Film producer<br>Screenwriter | years_active = 1911–1961 }} '''Allan Dwan''' (3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer and screenwriter. ==Early life== Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in [[Toronto]], Ontario, Canada, Dwan moved with his family to the United States when he was 11&nbsp;years old. At the University of Notre Dame, he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in Chicago. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]]. ==Career== Dwan operated [[Flying A Studios]] in [[La Mesa, California]] from August 1911 to July 1912.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eastcountymagazine.org/node/6833|title= La mesa to honor its tinseltown roots aug. 12–13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lamesa.patch.com/articles/100-simple-melodramas-were-made-in-la-mesa-100-years-ago|title= Proto-Hollywood: 100 Melodramas Were Made In La Mesa 100 Years Ago}}</ref> Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Ave and La Mesa Bl commemorating Dwan and the [[Flying A Studios]] origins in [[La Mesa, California]]. After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed 1922 ''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]''. Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], in 1937 he directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi]]'' and ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' the following year. Dwan also helped launch the career of two other very successful Hollywood directors, [[Victor Fleming]], who went on to direct [[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]] and [[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone With the Wind]], and [[Marshall Neilan]], who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over his long and successful career spanning over 50&nbsp;years, he directed over 400&nbsp;motion pictures, many of them highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office smash, ''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. He directed his last movie in 1961. He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, California]]. Allan Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 [[Hollywood Boulevard]]. ==Partial filmography as director== {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} *''[[The Gold Lust]]'' (1911) *''[[The Picket Guard]]'' (1913) *''[[The Restless Spirit]]'' (1913) *''[[Back to Life (1913 film)|Back to Life]]'' (1913) *''[[Bloodhounds of the North]]'' (1913) *''[[The Lie (1914 film)|The Lie]]'' (1914) *''[[The Honor of the Mounted]]'' (1914) *''[[Remember Mary Magdalen]]'' (1914) *''[[Discord and Harmony]]'' (1914) *''[[The Embezzler (1914 film)|The Embezzler]]'' (1914) *''[[The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf]]'' (1914) *''[[The End of the Feud]]'' (1914) *''[[The Tragedy of Whispering Creek]]'' (1914) *''[[The Unlawful Trade]]'' (1914) *''[[The Forbidden Room]]'' (1914) *''[[The Hopes of Blind Alley]]'' (1914) *''[[Richelieu (film)|Richelieu]]'' (1914) * ''[[Wildflower (1914 film)|Wildflower]]'' (1914) *''[[A Small Town Girl]]'' (1915) *''[[David Harum (1915 film)|David Harum]]'' (1915) *''[[A Girl of Yesterday]]'' (1915) *''[[The Pretty Sister of Jose (1915 film)|The Pretty Sister of Jose]]'' (1915) *''[[Jordan Is a Hard Road]]'' (1915) *''[[Betty of Graystone]]'' (1916) *''[[The Habit of Happiness]]'' (1916) *''[[The Good Bad Man]]'' (1916) *''[[An Innocent Magdalene]]'' (1916) *''''[[The Half-Breed (1916 film)|The Half-Breed]]'''' (1916) *''[[Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916) *''[[Accusing Evidence]]'' (1916) *''[[Panthea]]'' (1917) *''[[A Modern Musketeer]]'' (1917) *''[[Headin' South]]'' (1918) *''[[Mr. Fix-It (1918 film)|Mr. Fix-It]]'' (1918) *''[[He Comes Up Smiling]]'' (1918) *''[[Getting Mary Married]]'' (1919) *''[[In The Heart of a Fool]]'' (1920) also producer *''[[The Forbidden Thing]]'' (1920) also producer *''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922) *''[[Zaza (1923 film)|Zaza]]'' (1923) *''[[Big Brother (1923 film)|Big Brother]]'' (1923) *''[[Manhandled (1924 film)|Manhandled]]'' (1924) *''[[Night Life of New York]]'' (1925) *''[[Stage Struck (1925 film)|Stage Struck]]'' (1925) *''[[Tin Gods]]'' (1926) *''[[The Joy Girl]]'' (1927) *''[[East Side, West Side (1927 film)|East Side, West Side]]'' (1927) *''[[The Big Noise]]'' (1928) *''[[The Iron Mask]]'' (1929) *''[[Tide of Empire]]'' (1929) *''[[The Far Call]]'' (1929) {{col-2}} *''[[What a Widow!]]'' (1930) *''[[Man to Man (1930 film)|Man to Man]]'' (1930) *''[[Chances (1931 film)|Chances]]'' (1931) *''[[Wicked (1931 film)|Wicked]]'' (1931) *''[[While Paris Sleeps]]'' (1932) *''[[Counsel's Opinion]]'' (1933) *''[[Black Sheep (1935 film)|Black Sheep]]'' (1935) *''[[High Tension]]'' (1936) *''[[15 Maiden Lane]]'' (1936) *''[[One Mile From Heaven]]'' (1937) *''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) *''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938) *''[[Suez (film)|Suez]]'' (1938) *''[[The Three Musketeers (1939 film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939) *''[[The Gorilla (1939 film)|The Gorilla]]'' (1939) *''[[Frontier Marshal (1939 film)|Frontier Marshal]]'' (1939) *''[[Sailor's Lady]]'' (1940) *''[[Young People (film)|Young People]]'' (1940) *''[[Trail of the Vigilantes]]'' (1940) *''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer *''[[Rise and Shine (film)|Rise and Shine]]'' (1941) *''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942) *''Around the World'' (1943) also producer *''[[Up in Mabel's Room (1944 film)|Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944) *''[[Abroad with Two Yanks]]'' (1944) *''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter *''[[Brewster's Millions (1945 film)|Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945) *''[[Rendezvous with Annie]]'' (1946) *''Driftwood'' (1947) *''[[Calendar Girl (1947 film)|Calendar Girl]]'' (1947) *''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer *''[[The Inside Story (film)|The Inside Story]]'' (1948) *''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949) *''[[Belle Le Grand]]'' (1951) *''[[Wild Blue Yonder (film)|Wild Blue Yonder]]'' (1951) *''[[I Dream of Jeanie (film)|I Dream of Jeanie]]'' (1952) *''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952) *''[[Woman They Almost Lynched]]'' (1953) * ''[[Sweethearts on Parade]]'' (1953) *''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954) *''[[Passion (1954 film)|Passion]]'' (1954) *''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954) *''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955) *''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955) *''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955) *''[[Slightly Scarlet (1956 film)|Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956) *''[[Hold Back the Night]]'' (1956) *''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957) *''[[The River's Edge]]'' (1957) *''[[Enchanted Island (film)|Enchanted Island]]'' (1958) *''[[Most Dangerous Man Alive]]'' (1961) {{end}} ==See also== *[[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== * Brownlow, Kevin, ''The Parade's Gone By...'' (1968) ISBN 0520030680 ISBN 978-0520030688 * Bogdanovich, Peter, ''Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer'' (1971) ISBN 0289701228 ISBN 978-0289701225 * Foster, Charles, ''Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood'' (2000) ISBN 1-55002-348-9 * Lombardi, Frederic, ''Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios'' (2013) Print ISBN 978-0-7864-3485-5 Ebook ISBN 978-0-7864-9040-0 ==External links== {{commons category}} *{{IMDb name|id=0245385|name= Allan Dwan}} *[http://www.virtual-history.com/movie/person/2643/allan-dwan Allan Dwan] at Virtual History {{Allan Dwan}} {{Authority control|VIAF=69130584}} {{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --> |NAME= Dwan, Allan |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Dwan, Joseph Aloysius |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Film director, film producer, screenwriter |DATE OF BIRTH= 3 April 1885 |PLACE OF BIRTH= Toronto, Ontario, Canada |DATE OF DEATH= 28 December 1981 |PLACE OF DEATH= Los Angeles, California, United States }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dwan, Allan}} [[Category:American film directors]] [[Category:American film producers]] [[Category:American screenwriters]] [[Category:Western (genre) film directors]] [[Category:Canadian film directors]] [[Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States]] [[Category:Writers from Toronto]] [[Category:1885 births]] [[Category:1981 deaths]] [[Category:Short film directors]] [[Category:Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery]] 5dn03jfr1al6tuf90r78b5tsqmf46he wikitext text/x-wiki 0 347 179567227 15899081 2007-12-22T10:56:42Z Closedmouth 372693 Added {{R from CamelCase}} tag to redirect. using [[WP:FRIENDLY|Friendly]] #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Algeria]] {{R from CamelCase}} atnidz21lkt35kha8kybfu00j3ltpmc wikitext text/x-wiki 0 353 215475986 179567318 2008-05-28T11:06:14Z SoxBot 5787719 Robot: Fixing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Algeria]] {{R from CamelCase}} gp1fqbsllaeaf0tvmj86lff7o62hg4z wikitext text/x-wiki 0 358 602286271 602211786 2014-04-01T16:46:02Z Charles Essie 16892062 /* Cinema */ {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{see also|Portal:Algeria{{!}}Algeria portal|Outline of Algeria}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{coord|28|N|2|E|scale:10000000_type:country_region:DZ|format=dms|display=title}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = <div style="padding-bottom: 0.3em; white-space: nowrap;">People's Democratic Republic of Algeria</div>| native_name = الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية <small>(Arabic)</small> | common_name = Algeria | national_anthem = "[[Kassaman]]"<br/>{{small|"We Pledge"}} by: [[Moufdi Zakaria]] <br/> {{small|[http://www.algeria-un.org/audio/algeria.mp3 External audio file]}} | national_motto = {{native phrase|ar|{{big|بالشّعب وللشّعب}}|italics=off}}<br/>{{small|"By the people and for the people"}}{{lower|0.2em|<ref name="CONST-AR">{{cite web|url=http://www.el-mouradia.dz/arabe/symbole/textes/constitution96.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria, Art. 11 |language=Arabic |publisher=El-mouradia.dz |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="CONST-EN">{{cite web|url=http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria; Art. 11 |publisher=Apn-dz.org |date=28 November 1996 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref>}} | image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg | image_coat = Algeria emb (1976).svg | symbol_type = Emblem | image_map = Algeria (orthographic projection).svg | official_languages = [[Arabic]]<ref name="constitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria; Art. 3 |publisher=Apn-dz.org |date=28 November 1996 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> | languages_type = Other languages | languages = {{vunblist |[[Tamazight]]<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html |title=The World Factbook - Algeria |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=4 December 2013 |accessdate=24 December 2013}}</ref> {{small|(constitutionally national)}} | French (business and education)<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>}} | official_religion = [[Sunni Islam]] | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist | 99% {{nowrap|[[Arab-Berber]]s<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>{{ref label|Amazigh|a|}}<!--end nowrap:-->}} | 1% others<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>}} | capital = [[Algiers]] | latd=36 |latm=42 |latNS=N |longd=3 |longm=13 |longEW=E | largest_city = capital | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Algeria|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Youcef Yousfi]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Algeria|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Council of the Nation]] | lower_house = {{nowrap|[[People's National Assembly]]}} | sovereignty_type = [[Algerian War|Independence]] {{nobold|from France}} | established_event1 = Recognized | established_date1 = 3 July 1962 | established_event2 = Declared | established_date2 = 5 July 1962 | area_rank = 10th | area_magnitude = 1 E12 | area_km2 = 2381741 | area_sq_mi = 919595 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 38,700,000<ref name="ONS">{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.dz/-Demographie-.html |title=Démographie (ONS) |publisher=ONS |date=19 January 2014 |accessdate=19 January 2014}}</ref> |population_estimate_year = 2014 |population_estimate_rank = 34th | population_census = 37,900,000<ref name="ONS"/> | population_census_year = 2013 | population_density_km2 = 15.9 | population_density_sq_mi = 37.9 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 208th | GDP_PPP_year = 2012 | GDP_PPP = $272.866 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2013/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=612&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=68&pr.y=8 |title=Algeria |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=17 April 2013}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 47th | GDP_PPP_per_capita =$7,477<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 100th | GDP_nominal =$207.794 billion<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_nominal_rank = 49th | GDP_nominal_year = 2012 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $5,693<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 93rd | Gini_year = 1995 | Gini_change = <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | Gini = 35.3 <!-- number only --> | Gini_ref =<ref>{{cite web |author=Staff |date=undated |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |title=Distribution of Family Income&nbsp;– Gini Index |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |accessdate=1 September 2009 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5rRcwIiYs |archivedate=23 July 2010 |deadurl=no}}</ref> | HDI_year = 2013 | HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI = 0.713 <!-- number only --> | HDI_ref =<ref name="UN">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2011. Human Development Index Trends |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 93rd | currency = [[Algerian dinar]] | currency_code = DZD | time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[UTC+01]]) | time_zone_DST = | demonym = Algerian | drives_on = right<ref>{{cite news|last=Geoghegan |first=Tom |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8239048.stm |title=Could the UK drive on the right? |publisher=BBC News |date=7 September 2009 |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref> | calling_code = [[+213]] | iso3166code = DZ | cctld = {{vunblist |[[.dz]] |[[الجزائر.]]}} | footnote_a = {{note|arabberberbox}} The [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]] states that about 15% of Algerians, a minority, identify as Berber even though almost all Algerians have Berber origins instead of Arab origins. The Factbook explains that of the approximately 15% who identify as Berber, most live in [[Kabylie]], more closely identify with Berber heritage instead of Arab heritage, and are Muslim. }} '''Algeria''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Algeria.ogg|æ|l|ˈ|dʒ|ɪər|i|ə}}; [[Literary Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|الجزائر}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-Jazāʼir}}''<span style="margin-left:2px">;</span> [[Algerian Arabic]] and [[Darija]]:''Dzayer,'' ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ; {{lang-fr|link=no|Algérie}}<!--French is not official but is in ''de facto'' use in the country, including by the Algerian government, see "Languages of Algeria"-->), officially '''The People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''', is a country in the [[Maghreb]] region of [[North Africa]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast. Its capital and most populous city is [[Algiers]]. Algeria is a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]], it consists of 48 provinces and 1541 communes. With a population of 37.9 million, it is the 35th most populated country on Earth. With an economy based on [[oil resources]], manufacturing has suffered from what is called [[Dutch disease]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conference.qfis.edu.qa/app/media/304 |title=Poverty and Macroeconomic Development in Algeria: What is the contribution of Oil Revenues? |publisher=Center for Islamic Economics and Finance, Qatar Faculty of Islamic Studies, Qatar Foundation |author=Benbouziane, Mohamed and Benhabib, Abderrezak |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref> [[Sonatrach]], the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|second largest military]] in North Africa with the largest defense budget in Africa.<ref name="AlgeriaSpending">{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2013/03/11/Algerias-military-goes-on-an-arms-spree/UPI-89581363031700/ |title=Algeria buying military equipment |publisher=UPI.com |date= |accessdate=24 December 2013}}</ref> Algeria had a peaceful [[Algeria and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear program]] by the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb228/index.htm |title=The Nuclear Vault: The Algerian Nuclear Problem |publisher=Gwu.edu |date= |accessdate=14 March 2013}}</ref> With a total area of {{convert|2381741|km2|sqmi|0}}, Algeria is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|tenth-largest country in the world]], and the largest in Africa and in the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html|title=Country Comparison: Area |publisher=CIA World Factbook |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> The country is bordered in the northeast by [[Tunisia]], in the east by [[Libya]], in the west by [[Morocco]], in the southwest by [[Western Sahara]], [[Mauritania]], and [[Mali]], in the southeast by [[Niger]], and in the north by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Algeria is a member of the [[African Union]], the [[Arab League]], [[OPEC]] and the United Nations, and is a founding member of the [[Arab Maghreb Union]]. The territory of today's Algeria was the home of many ancient prehistoric cultures, including [[Aterian]] and [[Capsian culture|Capsian]] cultures. Its area has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient Berber [[Numidia]]ns, Lybio-Punic [[Punic|Carthaginians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vandals]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], Arab [[Umayyad]]s, Berber [[Fatimid]]s, Berber [[Almoravids]], Berber [[Almohads]], [[Ottoman Turks|Turkish]] Ottomans and the [[French Algeria|French colonial empire]]. ==Etymology== The country's name derives from the city of [[Algiers]]. The city's name in turn derives from the Arabic ''al-Jazā'ir'' (الجزائر, "The Islands"),<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Algeria Online Etymological Dictionary]</ref> a truncated form of the older ''Jazā'ir Banī Mazghanna'' (جزائر بني مزغنة, "Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe"),<ref name=idrisi>{{cite book|last=al-Idrisi|first=Muhammad|title=Nuzhat al-Mushtaq|year=12th century}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}}<ref name=khaldun>{{cite book|last=Abderahman|first=Abderrahman|title=History of Ibn Khaldun&nbsp;– Volume 6|year=1377}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} employed by medieval geographers such as [[Muhammad al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]]. ==History== {{Main|History of Algeria}} ===Ancient history=== {{main|Prehistoric North Africa|North Africa during Antiquity}} [[File:Tassili ladies.jpg|thumb|upright|Detail of [[Tassili]] rock paintings dating from about 3000 BC relating a probably lost civilization in what was known as the [[Green Sahara]]]] At Ain Hanech region ([[Saïda Province]]), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in North Africa were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] and [[Mousterian]] styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gi.ulpgc.es/tarha/Ain_Hanech.pdf |title=The Site of Ain Hanech Revisited: New Investigations at this Lower Pleistocene Site in Northern Algeria |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science |author=Sahnouni, Mohamed and de Heinzelin, Jean |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/ain-hanech.html |title=Research at Ain Hanech, Algeria |publisher=Stoneageinstitute.org |date= |accessdate=14 January 2013}}</ref> Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of [[Middle Paleolithic]] [[Flake tool]] techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called [[Aterian]] (after the archeological site of [[Bir el Ater]], south of [[Tebessa]]). The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called [[Iberomaurusian]] (located mainly in [[Oran]] region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the [[Maghreb]] between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghrib between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]] paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called [[Berber people|Berbers]], who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Berbers|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|year=1997|chapter=Berbers in Antiquity|isbn=978-0-631-20767-2|url=http://books.google.com/?id=8Zcz91t29ukC|author=Brett, Michael; Fentress, Elizabeth}}</ref> [[File:Timgad rue.jpg|200px|thumbnail|right|Ancient [[Roman Empire]] ruins of [[Timgad]]. Street leading to the Arch of Trajan.]] [[File:GM Djemila Roman Theatre02.jpg|thumbnail|left|Ancient Roman theatre in Djémila]] From their principal center of power at Carthage, the [[Carthaginians]] expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a [[Phoenicia]]n presence existed at [[Tipasa]], east of [[Cherchell]], [[Hippo Regius]] (modern [[Annaba]]) and [[Rusicade]] (modern [[Skikda]]). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. [[File:Egypt, Rome, Carthage and Numidia.jpg|thumbnail|right|Numidia along with Egypt, Rome, and Carthage 200 BCE]] By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the [[Mercenary War|Revolt of the Mercenaries]], Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the [[First Punic War]]. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the [[Punic Wars]]. In 146 BC the city of [[Carthage]] was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in [[Numidia]], behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay [[Mauretania]], which extended across the [[Moulouya River]] in modern day [[Morocco]] to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the coming of the [[Almohads]] and [[Almoravids]] more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of [[Massinissa]] in the 2nd century BC. After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Massinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the [[Roman Empire]]. For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. The Vandals of [[Geiseric]] moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia.<ref name="vandaf">{{cite book|last1=Cameron|first1=Averil|last2=Ward-Perkins|first2=Bryan|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Qf8mrHjfZRoC&pg=RA1-PA124|volume=14|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-32591-2|pages=124–126|chapter=Vandal Africa, 429–533}}</ref> They did not make any significant settlement on the land.<ref name="vandaf"/> The region was later recaptured by the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], which ruled it until the [[Muslim Conquest]] in the 7th century. ===Middle Ages=== {{main|Medieval Muslim Algeria}} [[File:Mansourah-1.jpg|thumbnail|right|Mansourah mosque, Tlemcen]] [[File:FatimidCaliphate969.png|thumb|Fatimid Caliphate 969 A.D.]] Muslim [[Arabs]] conquered Algeria in the mid-7th century and a large number of locals converted to the new faith. After the fall of the [[Umayyad]] [[Arab]] Dynasty in 751, numerous local Berber dynasties emerged, including the [[Aghlabids]], [[Almohads]], [[Abdalwadid]], [[Zirids]], [[Rustamids]], [[Hammadids]], [[Almoravids]] and the [[Fatimids]].{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} Having converted the Berber [[Kutama]] of the [[Petite Kabylie]] to its cause, the [[Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s overthrew the [[Rustamid]]s and conquered Egypt, leaving Algeria and Tunisia to their [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid vassals]]. When the latter rebelled, the Fatimids sent in the [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] Arabian tribes who unexpectedly defeated the [[Zirid]]s.<ref name=Theotokis>{{cite journal|last=Theotokis|first=Georgios|title=The Norman Invasion of Sicily, 1061–1072: Numbers and Military Tactics|journal=War in History|date=November 2010|volume=17|issue=4|pages=381–402}}</ref><ref name=Tunisia>{{cite journal|last=Curtiss|first=Richard R.|title=Tunisia: "A Country That Works"; Tunisia in History; The Country Which Gave Its Name to a Continent|journal=The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs|date=December 1996|volume=15|issue=5}}</ref> During the Middle Ages the [[Fatimids]] or the sons of Fatima bent Muhammad as they were descended from Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad, according to Fatimid claims<ref>https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimids</ref> came to the Maghreb. These "Fatimids" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz, and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, and a powerful military and navy, primarily made up of the native North Africans or the Imazighen. The Imazighen or "berbers" controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times even unifying it (as under the Fatimids) as well as overseas conquests of Portugal, Senegal, Spain, Sicily, Egypt, Sudan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, and Yemen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202580/Fatimid-Dynasty/2238/Conquest-of-Egypt|title=Fatimid Dynasty (Islamic dynasty)|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=29 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_carte.php?carte=carte-05 |title=Qantara |publisher=Qantara-med.org |date= |accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=595 |title=Qantara - Les Almoravides (1056-1147) |publisher=Qantara-med.org |date= |accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref> Caliphates from Northern Africa traded tit for tat with the other empires of their time, as well forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the highly competitive Islamic Era. The "Berbers" or Imazighen consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, [[Sanhadja]], Houaras, [[Zenata]], [[Masmuda|Masmouda]], Kutama, Awarba, and [[Berghwata]]). All these tribes were independent and made territorial decisions.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2|title=Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Slane| trans_title =History of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa | language= French |page=XV|author=Khaldūn, Ibn|year=1852}}</ref> Several Berber dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. [[Ibn Khaldun]] provides a table summarizing the Berber dynasties of the Maghreb region, the Zirid, [[Banu Ifran]], [[Maghrawa]], [[Almoravid]], [[Hammadid]], [[Almohad]], [[Merinid]], Abdalwadid, [[Wattasid]], [[Meknassa]] and [[Hafsid]] dynasties.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR115|title=Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Slane |trans_title =History of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa | language= French |pages=X |author=Khaldūn, Ibn|year=1852}}</ref> In the early 16th century, Spain constructed fortified outposts ([[presidio]]s) on or near the Algerian coast. Spain took control of [[Mers el Kebir]] in 1505; [[Oran]] in 1509; and [[Tlemcen]], [[Mostaganem]], and [[Ténès]], in 1510. In the same year, the merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbor to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavor that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet.<ref>{{cite web|title=European Offensive|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/14.htm|publisher=Country Studies}}</ref> ===Ottoman Algeria=== {{main|Ottoman Algeria}} [[File:Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Hayreddin Barbarossa]]]] [[File:Old algiers 16th century.jpg|thumb|Old [[Algiers]] in the 16th century, with the Spanish-built [[Peñón of Algiers]] in the forefront]] In 1516 the Muslim privateer brothers [[Aruj]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], who operated successfully under the [[Hafsids]], moved their base of operations to Algiers. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Tlemcen]], Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan gave him the title of [[beylerbey]] and a contingent of some 2,000 [[janissaries]]. With the aid of this force, Hayreddin subdued the coastal region between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1791).<ref name="csa16" /> The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son [[Hasan Pasha (son of Barbarossa)|Hasan]], who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an [[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|agha]]. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.<ref name="csa16" /> [[Plague (disease)|Plague]] had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691, and 1740–42.<ref name="Davis" /> In 1671, the [[taifa]] rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of [[dey]]. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the [[divan]], a council of some sixty notables. It was at first dominated by the ''[[ojaq]]''; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognize him and his successors as regent, replacing the [[pasha]] in that role. Although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman government ceased to have effective influence there.<ref name="csa16" /> The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups, and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronized the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the [[Kabylie]].<ref name="csa16">{{cite web|title=Algeria&nbsp;– Ottoman Rule|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/16.htm|publisher=Country Studies}}</ref> ====Privateers era==== [[File:Debarquement et maltraitement de prisonniers a alger.JPG|thumb|[[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Christian slaves]] in Algiers, 1706]] The [[Barbary pirates]] preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.<ref name="Davis">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false |title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 |author=Robert Davis |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year= 2003|isbn=9780333719664}}</ref> The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as [[slavery|slaves]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/history/American_and_Military/Barbary_Pirates/Britannica_1911*.html |title=Barbary Pirates—Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911 |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.<ref name="barbary">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml |title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> They often made raids, called [[Ghazi (warrior)|Razzia]]s, on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at [[Arab slave trade|slave markets]] in North Africa and the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_02.shtml |title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=[[Christopher Hitchens|Hitchens, Christopher]] | date = Spring 2007 | url=http://www.city-journal.org/html/17_2_urbanities-thomas_jefferson.html |title=Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates | work=[[City Journal (New York)|City Journal]] | accessdate =15 September 2011}}</ref> In 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of [[Ischia]], taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of [[Lipari]], almost the entire population.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/26/style/26iht-trsic_ed3_.html |title=The Mysteries and Majesties of the Aeolian Islands |work=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> In 1551, [[Turgut Reis]] enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of [[Gozo]], between 5,000 and 6,000, sending the captives to Libya. In 1554, pirates sacked [[Vieste]] in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000 captives as slaves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centrovacanzeoriente.it/cvoriente/en/dintorni.jsp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722025813/http://www.centrovacanzeoriente.it/cvoriente/en/dintorni.jsp |archivedate=22 July 2011 |title=Monte Sant'Angelo |publisher=centrovacanzeoriente.it |date=22 July 2011 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> In 1558, Barbary corsairs captured the town of [[Ciutadella]] (Minorca), destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors as slaves to [[Istanbul]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holidays2menorca.com/history.php |title=History of Menorca}}</ref> Barbary pirates often attacked the [[Balearic Islands]], and in response, the residents built many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of [[Formentera]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm |archivedate=25 July 2011 |title=When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed|work=Ohio State Research COmmunications}}</ref> Between 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.<ref name="barbary"/> In the 19th century, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mackie|first=Erin Skye|title=Welcome the Outlaw: Pirates, Maroons, and Caribbean Countercultures|journal=Cultural Critique|date=1 January 2005|volume=59|issue=1|pages=24–62|doi=10.1353/cul.2005.0008}}</ref> One American slave reported that the Algerians had enslaved 130 American seamen in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from 1785 to 1793.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/history/American_and_Military/Barbary_Pirates/Britannica_1911*.html |title=Barbary Pirates&nbsp;– Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the [[First Barbary War|First]] (1801–1805) and [[Second Barbary War]]s (1815). Following those wars, Algeria was weaker, and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch fleet commanded by the British [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]], [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|attacked Algiers]]. After a nine-hour bombardment, they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by [[Stephen Decatur|Decatur]] (US navy) concerning the demands of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end the practice of enslaving Christians.<ref>{{cite book|author=Littell, Eliakim |title=The Museum of foreign literature, science and art |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&pg=PA231 |year=1836 |publisher=E. Littell |page=231}}</ref> ===French Algeria=== {{main|French Algeria|Algerian War}} [[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|left|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in Algiers in 1857]] On the pretext of [[French conquest of Algeria#The Fan Affair|a slight to their consul]], the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830.<ref>{{cite web|title=Background Note: Algeria|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019 |year=2006 |pages=29–30 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6}}</ref> The conquest of Algeria by the French was long and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.<ref name="Ricoux1880">{{cite book|last=Ricoux|first=René|title=La démographie figurée de l'Algérie: étude statistique des... |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103772b/f299.image|accessdate=14 February 2013|year=1880|publisher=G. Masson|pages=260–261|authormask=|trans_title=The figurative demographics of Algeria}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=February 2013}} The population of Algeria, which stood at about 1.5 million in 1830, reached nearly 11 million in 1960.<ref>{{cite web|title=Algeria (Djazaïria) historical demographic data of the whole country|url=http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm|work=Population Statistics|publisher=populstat.info|accessdate=9 June 2012|author=Lahmeyer, Jan |date=11 October 2003}}</ref> French policy was predicated on "civilizing" the country.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ruedy, John Douglas |title=Modern Algeria: The Origins And Development of a Nation |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA103 |year=2005 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21782-0 |page=103}}</ref> Algeria's social fabric suffered during the occupation: literacy plummeted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-365.html |title=Country Data |publisher=Country-data.com |accessdate=24 November 2008}}{{verify credibility|date=January 2013}}</ref> During this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was formed, made up of Berbers mostly from [[Kabyle People|Kabyles]]. In the French policy of "divide to reign," its government favored the Kabyles.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hargreaves, Alec G. and McKinney, Mark |title=Post-Colonial Cultures in France |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0xk6235fcNcC&pg=PA104 |year=1997 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-14487-2 |page=104}}</ref> About 80% of Indigenous Schools were constructed for Kabyles. [[File:Abdelkader by Etienne Carjat.jpg|150px|thumbnail|right|[[Abdelkader El Djezairi|Emir Abdelkader]]in 1865]] From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and département of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of [[European ethnic groups|European]] immigrants, who became known as ''colons'' and later, as ''[[Pied-Noir]]s.'' Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Randell|first=Keith|title=France: Monarchy, Republic and Empire, 1814–70|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AvyGHAAACAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|isbn=978-0-340-51805-2}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.<ref>{{cite book |author=Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (New York Review Books Classics) |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019 |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6 |oclc=|page=32}}</ref> Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy, and eventually independence, from France. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the [[Algerian War]] began. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 [[Harkis]] and their dependents were killed by the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|Front de Libération Nationale]] (FLN) or by [[lynching|lynch]] mobs in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7130307.stm |publisher=BBC News | title=French 'Reparation' for Algerians | date=6 December 2007}}</ref> The FLN used terrorist attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted severe reprisals and repression. The war concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 [[Evian agreements]] and the July 1962 [[Algerian self-determination referendum, 1962|self-determination referendum]]. ===Independence=== {{main|History of Algeria (1962–99)}} [[File:Houari Boumediene's Portrait.jpg|150px|thumbnail|left|[[Houari Boumediene]]]] Algeria's first president was the FLN leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. Morocco's claim to [[Greater Morocco|portions of western Algeria]] led to the [[Sand War]] in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by [[Houari Boumediene]], his former ally and defense minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]]; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He [[collective farming|collectivised]] agriculture and launched a massive industrialization drive. [[Extraction of petroleum|Oil extraction]] facilities were nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international [[1973 oil crisis]]. In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a programme of industrialisation within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of [[Arabisation]] in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread radical Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of political Islamism.<ref name="faco" /> The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the [[1980s oil glut]].<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|last=Prochaska|first=David|title=That Was Then, This Is Now: The Battle of Algiers and After.|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/rhr/summary/v085/85.1prochaska.html|page=141|accessdate=10 March 2012}}</ref> Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] (FIS), a broad coalition of Islamist groups.<ref name="faco" /> ===Civil War and aftermath=== {{main|Algerian Civil War}} In December 1991 the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] dominated the first of two rounds of [[Algerian legislative election, 1991|legislative elections]]. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a [[High Council of State (Algeria)|High Council of State]] was installed to act as Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil [[insurgency]] between the Front's armed wing, the [[Armed Islamic Group of Algeria|Armed Islamic Group]], and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 persons are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of [[List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War|civilian massacres]].<ref>"[http://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/30/world/98-die-in-one-of-algerian-civil-war-s-worst-massacres.html 98 Die in One of Algerian Civil War's Worst Massacres ]". ''The New York Times''. 30 August 1997.</ref> At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding [[Air France Flight 8969]], a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.<ref name="faco" /> Algeria held [[Algerian presidential election, 1999|elections in 1999]], considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups <ref>{{cite web| url = http://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria#.Ut_5Aig4m2w |title = Freedom in the World 2013: Algeria|publisher = Freedom House| author = "Freedom House"}}</ref> which were won by President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a 'Civil Concord' initiative, approved in a [[Algerian Civil Concord referendum, 1999|referendum]], under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The [[Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]] (GSPC), a splinter group of the Group Islamic Armée, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.<ref name="faco" /> [[File:A Market in Algeria.jpg|thumb|Algeria is more stable than other North African countries]] Bouteflika was re-elected in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2004|April 2004 presidential election]] after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the [[Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation]], which was approved in a [[Algerian national reconciliation referendum, 2005|referendum in September 2005]]. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.<ref name="faco" /> In November 2008, the [[Algerian Constitution]] was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential elections]], and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.<ref name="faco" /> A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar [[Arab Spring|protests across the Middle East and North Africa]]. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old [[state of emergency]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-24/world/algeria.emergency_1_islamist-party-algerian-press-service-emergency-declaration?_s=PM:WORLD | title = Algeria Officially Lifts State of Emergency |publisher=CNN |date=24 February 2011|accessdate=27 February 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110301134330/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-24/world/algeria.emergency_1_islamist-party-algerian-press-service-emergency-declaration?_s=PM:WORLD| archivedate= 1 March 2011 <!-- DASHBot -->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.<ref name="aaeo" /> In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform.<ref name="faco">{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Algeria|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20101213054455/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/middle-east-north-africa/algeria/?profile=all|publisher=Foreign and Commonwealth Office}}</ref> However, elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Algeria}} <gallery> image:Algeria-Lalla Khedidja.jpg|The [[Djurdjura]] Range in snow image:Tadrart Rouge.jpg|The Tadrart red desert. image:El Tarf-Algerie.jpg|[[El Taref Province]], In eastern Algeria. image:Ouarsenis 2012, Wilaya de Tissemsilt (Algérie).jpg|[[Ouarsenis]], range of mountains in North-Western (1985m) image:Les Aiguades.jpg|Maritime front of [[Bejaïa]] image:Djanet, Tassili.jpg|The [[Tassili]] n'Ajjer. image:Seraidi-Annaba.jpg|Eddoug National Park, [[Annaba]] </gallery> Algeria is the largest country in Africa, the [[Arab world]], and the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the [[Sahara]]. To the north, the [[Tell Atlas]] form with the [[Saharan Atlas]], further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of [[Aures]] and [[Tebessa|Nememcha]] occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is [[Mount Tahat]] ({{formatnum: 3003}} m). [[File:Algeria relief.png|thumb|The [[Sahara]], the [[Ahaggar Mountains|Ahaggar]] and the [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas]] mountains compose the Algerian relief]] Algeria lies mostly between latitudes [[19th parallel north|19°]] and [[37th parallel north|37°N]] (a small area is north of 37°), and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9°W]] and [[12th meridian east|12°E]]. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural [[harbour]]s. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a [[steppe]] landscape ending with the [[Saharan Atlas]]; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.<ref name=LOC>{{cite web|last=Metz|first=Helen Chapin|title=Algeria : a country study|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html|publisher=United States Library of Congress|accessdate=18 May 2013}}</ref> The [[Ahaggar Mountains]] ({{lang-ar|جبال هقار}}), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about {{convert|1500|km|0|abbr=on}} south of the capital, Algiers, and just west of [[Tamanghasset]]. Algiers, [[Oran]], [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], and [[Annaba]] are Algeria's main cities.<ref name=LOC /> ===Climate and hydrology=== {{Main|Climate of Algeria}} [[File:Hoggar8.jpg|thumb|An oasis in the [[Hoggar]]]] [[File:Agoulmime.jpg|thumb|left|Lake Agoulmime, [[Tikjda]].]] In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. The highest official temperature was {{convert|50.6|°C|°F}} at In Salah.<ref>{{cite web|title=Extreme Weather&nbsp;– A Guide and Record Book|url=http://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm|publisher=W.W. Norton Press|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5mgEKD3NJ|archivedate=10 January 2010|year=2007}}</ref> Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from {{convert|400|to|670|mm|1|abbr=on}} annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as {{convert|1000|mm|1|abbr=on}} in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has [[erg (landform)|ergs]], or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to {{convert|110|°F|°C|1|abbr=on}}.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} ===Fauna and flora=== {{Main|Wildlife of Algeria}} [[File:Cèdre du Chélia 13 (Algeria).jpg|thumb|left|[[Cedrus]] of Chélia in the [[Aures]]]] The varied vegetation of Algeria includes [[coastal]], [[mountainous]] and grassy [[desert]]-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilization. The most commonly seen animals include the wild [[boar]]s, [[jackal]]s, and [[gazelle]]s, although it is not uncommon to spot [[fennecs]] (foxes), and [[jerboas]]. Algeria also has a few, [[leopard]] and [[cheetah]] populations, but these are seldom seen. A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. [[Barbary macaque]]s are the sole native monkey. Snakes, [[monitor lizard]]s, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of [[rodent]]s throughout the [[semi arid]] regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, among which the [[Barbary lion]]s and bears. In the north, some of the native flora includes [[Macchia]] scrub, [[olive trees]], [[oak]]s, [[cedrus|cedar]]s and other [[conifers]]. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens ([[Aleppo pine]], [[juniper]], and [[evergreen oak]]) and some deciduous trees. [[Ficus|Fig]], [[eucalyptus]], [[agave]], and various [[palm trees]] grow in the warmer areas. The [[grape vine]] is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. [[Acacias]] with wild [[olives]] are the predominant flora in the remainder of the [[Sahara]]. [[Camel]]s are used extensively; the desert also abounds with poisonous and nonpoisonous snakes, [[scorpion]]s, and numerous insects. ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Algeria}} [[File:Hémicycle de l'assemblée populaire nationale (Algérie).jpg|thumb|The [[People's National Assembly]]]] Algeria is an [[authoritarian regime]], according to the [[Democracy Index]] 2010.<ref>{{cite web | title=Democracy Index 2010 | url=http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf|work=eiu.com }}</ref> The [[Freedom of the Press (report)|Freedom of the Press 2009]] report gives it rating "Not Free".<ref>{{cite web | title=Freedom of the Press 2009 | url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/2009/FreedomofthePress2009_tables.pdf | publisher=[[Freedom House]] | accessdate=7 May 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090520232850/http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/fop/2009/FreedomofthePress2009_tables.pdf| archivedate= 20 May 2009 <!-- DASHBot -->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Elected politicians are considered to have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs", known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man may be [[Mohamed Mediène]], head of the military intelligence.<ref>{{cite news|title=Still waiting for real democracy|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21554565|publisher=The Economist|date=12 May 2012}}</ref> In recent years, many of these generals have died or retired. After the death of General [[Larbi Belkheir]], Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at [[Sonatrach]], and secured constitutional amendments that make him re-electable indefinitely.<ref>{{cite news|title=The president and the police|url=http://www.economist.com/node/15612455|publisher=The Economist|date=4 May 2010}}</ref> The head of state is the president of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7724635.stm |title= Algeria Deputies Scrap Term Limit |publisher=BBC News |date=12 November 2008 |accessdate=24 November 2008| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081114015503/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7724635.stm| archivedate= 14 November 2008 <!-- DASHBot -->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Algeria has universal [[suffrage]] at 18 years of age.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The President is the head of the [[Algerian Army|army]], the [[Council of Ministers of Algeria|Council of Ministers]] and the [[High Security Council]]. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government.<ref name="president">Articles: 85, 87, 77, 78 and 79 of the Algerian constitution {{cite web|last=Algerian government|title=Constitution|url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_6.htm|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> The Algerian parliament is [[bicameral]]; the lower house, the [[People's National Assembly]], has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the [[Council of the Nation]], has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president.<ref name=fitw13 /> According to the [[Constitution of Algeria|constitution]], no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.<ref>Article 42 of the Algerian constitution – {{cite web|last=Algerian Government|title=Algerian constitution الحـقــوق والحــرّيـات|url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_4-1.htm|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> Parliamentary elections were last held in [[Algerian legislative election, 2012|May 2012]], and were judged to be largely free by international monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities.<ref name=fitw13>{{cite web|title=Algeria|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria|work=Freedom in the World 2013|publisher=Freedom House|accessdate=8 March 2013}}</ref> In the elections, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] won 221 seats, the military-backed [[National Rally for Democracy (Algeria)|National Rally for Democracy]] won 70, and the Islamist [[Green Algeria Alliance]] won 47.<ref name=fitw13/> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Algeria}} [[File:The Sahrawi refugees – a forgotten crisis in the Algerian desert (7).jpg|thumb|For over 30 years, several tens of thousands of [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawi]] refugees have been living in the region of [[Tindouf]] in the heart of the desert.]] In October 2009, Algeria cancelled a weapons deal with France over the possibility of inclusion of Israeli parts in them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoprod.co.il/article/2/301 |title=Algeria Cancels Weapons Deal over Israeli Parts |publisher=[[Info Prod Research]] |accessdate=23 April 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100101035737/http://www.infoprod.co.il/article/2/301 |archivedate=1 January 2010}}</ref> Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the [[Western Sahara]] have been an obstacle to tightening the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/990219/1999021906.html |publisher=ArabicNews.com |title=Bin Ali calls for reactivating Arab Maghreb Union, Tunisia-Maghreb, Politics |date=19 February 1999 |accessdate=4 April 2006}}</ref> Algeria is included in the European Union's [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI), coming into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and will provide the bulk of funding through a number of programmes. ===Military=== {{Main|Military of Algeria}} [[File:Su-30dz.jpg|thumb|Algerian Air Force [[Su-30]]MKA]] The military of Algeria consists of the [[People's National Army]] (ANP), the [[Algerian National Navy]] (MRA), and the [[Algerian Air Force]] (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defense Force.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> It is the direct successor of the [[Armée de Libération Nationale]] (ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial [[military occupation|occupation]] during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate).<ref name=IISS_TMB>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2008 |author=Hackett, James (ed.)|others= [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] |date=5 February 2008|publisher=Europa |isbn=978-1-85743-461-3| url=http://www.zawya.com/printstory.cfm?storyid=v51n20-1TS05&l=134200080519|accessdate=16 July 2008}}</ref> Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 18 months (six training and 12 in civil projects).<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The military expenditure was 4.3% of the [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2012.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Algeria has the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|second largest military]] in North Africa with the largest defense budget in Africa ($10.3 billion).<ref name="AlgeriaSpending"/> In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 [[MiG-29]]SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9&nbsp;billion. It also agreed to return old aircraft purchased from the [[former USSR]]. Russia is also building two [[Kilo class submarine|636-type]] diesel [[submarines]] for Algeria.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_world/view/282163/1/.html| title=Venezuela's Chavez To Finalise Russian Submarines Deal|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|work=[[Breitbart.com]]| date=14 June (unknown year)<!--dateline has no year; AFP copyright is 2005, but article prose mentions 2006 in the past tense-->| accessdate=31 August 2011}}</ref> ==Provinces and districts== {{Main|Provinces of Algeria|Districts of Algeria|Municipalities of Algeria}} Algeria is divided into 48 [[provinces of Algeria|provinces]] (''[[wilaya]]s''), 553 [[districts of Algeria|districts]] (''[[daïra]]s'') and 1,541 [[Municipalities of Algeria|municipalities]] (''[[baladiyah]]s''). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its [[Capital (political)|seat]], which is usually the largest city. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> {{Algeria Wilayas}} ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Algeria}} [[File:Algeria Export Treemap.jpg|thumb|250px|Graphical depiction of the country's exports in 28 colour-coded categories.]] Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/CLASS.XLS |title=World Bank list of economies |date= January 2011 |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=27 May 2011}}</ref> The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside of hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.<ref name=aaeo/> A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.<ref name=aaeo/> The Algerian economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by public spending, in particular in the construction and public-works sector, and by growing internal demand. If hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4.8%. Growth of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of inflation was 4% and the budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP and at the end of December 2011, official reserves were put at US$182 billion.<ref name=aaeo/> Inflation, the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007.<ref name="MFW4A">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfw4a.org/algeria/algeria-financial-sector-profile.html |title=Algeria: Financial Sector Profile |publisher=Making Finance Work for Africa |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[File:Algeria, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|250px|Algeria, trends in the [[Human Development Index]] 1970-2010]] In 2011 Algeria announced a budgetary surplus of $26.9 billion, 62% increase in comparison to 2010 surplus. In general, the country exported $73 billion worth of commodities while it imported $46 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.nuqudy.com/General_Overview/North_Africa/Algeria_Non-Oil_Exp-676 |title=Algeria Non-Oil Exports Surge 41% |publisher=nuqudy.com |date=25 January 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in [[foreign currency reserves]] and a large hydrocarbon stabilization fund. In addition, Algeria's [[List of countries by external debt|external debt]] is extremely low at about 2% of GDP.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.<ref name=imfart4/> In 2011, the agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5.3%, respectively.<ref name=aaeo/> About 14% of the labor force are employed in the [[Agriculture in Algeria|agricultural sector]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Fiscal policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing.<ref name=aaeo/> Algeria has not joined the [[WTO]], despite several years of negotiations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Doing Business in Algeria|url=http://algiers.usembassy.gov/doing_business_algeria.html|publisher=Embassy of the United States Algiers, Algeria}}</ref> In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74&nbsp;billion of Algeria's [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-era debt<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brtsis.com/ |title=Brtsis, Brief on Russian Defence, Trade, Security and Energy |publisher=Brtsis.com |accessdate=24 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219035941/http://www.brtsis.com/ |archivedate=19 February 2008}}</ref> during a visit by [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Vladimir Putin]] to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, [[President of Algeria|Algerian President]] [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] agreed to buy $7.5&nbsp;billion worth of combat planes, air-defense systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter [[Rosoboronexport]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia Agrees Algeria Arms Deal, Writes Off Debt |agency=Reuters |date=11 March 2006 |url=http://www.sauress.com/en/spaen/338083}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Marsaud, Olivia | title=La Russie efface la dette algérienne| language = French | publisher=[[Radio France Internationale]] |date=10 March 2006 |url=http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/075/article_42379.asp | accessdate =31 August 2011| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721020655/http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/075/article_42379.asp| archivedate= 21 July 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Hydrocarbons=== {{see also|Mining industry of Algeria}} [[File:Ra ffin erie.jpg|thumb|Refinery located in Sidi Arcine ([[Baraki, Algiers]])]] Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an [[OPEC]] member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe.<ref name=opb15>{{cite web|title=OPEC Bulletin 8-9/12|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/flipbook/OB08092012/OB08092012/assets/basic-html/page17.html|page=15}}</ref> Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|10th-largest reserves of natural gas]] in the world and is the [[List of countries by natural gas exports|sixth-largest gas exporter]]. The U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] reported that in 2005, Algeria had {{convert|160|Tcuft}} of proven [[natural gas reserves|natural-gas reserves]].<ref name="ciawfb">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html|title=Country Comparison: Natural Gas – Proved Reserves|publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> It also ranks [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|16th in oil reserves]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.<ref name=imfart4/> Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards.<ref name=aaeo/> Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsa-algerie.com/actualite/item/622-le-temps-des-crapules |title=Le temps des crapules&nbsp;– Tout sur l'Algérie |publisher=Tsa-algerie.com |date= |accessdate=29 May 2013}}</ref> and 70% of budgetary receipts, or USD 71.4 billion.<ref name=aaeo/> The Algerian national oil company is [[Sonatrach]], which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Analysis Briefs&nbsp;– Algeria|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20130531053812/http://www.eia.gov/cabs/Algeria/pdf.pdf|publisher=Energy Information Administration}}</ref> ===Labour market=== Despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high.<ref name=imfart4>{{cite web|title=Algeria: 2011 Article IV Consultation|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr1220.pdf|publisher=IMF}}</ref> Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group.<ref name=aaeo/> The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).<ref name=aaeo>{{cite web|title=Algeria|url=http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/algeria/|publisher=African Economic Outlook}}</ref> ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Algeria}} [[Image:Djanet-Algeria-night.jpg|thumb|[[Djanet]]]] The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Algeria<ref>{{cite web|last=UNESCO|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/dz|accessdate=25 September 2011}}</ref> including [[Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad]], the first capital of the [[Hammadid]] empire; [[Tipasa]], a Phoenician and later Roman town; and [[Djémila]] and [[Timgad]], both [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins; [[M'Zab Valley]], a limestone valley containing a large urbanized [[oasis]]; also the [[Casbah]] of Algiers is an important citadel. The only natural [[World Heritage Sites]] is the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]], a mountain range. ===Transport=== {{Main|Transport in Algeria}} [[Image:Les fusillés-métro-Alger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Algiers Metro]]]] [[File:Autoroute est ouest ghomri2.JPG|thumb|The main highway relaying the Moroccan to the Tunisian borders, was a part of the [[Cairo–Dakar Highway]] project]] The Algerian road network is the most dense of the African continent, its length is estimated at 180,000&nbsp;km of highways, with a rate of more than 3 756 structures and paving of 85%. This network should be complemented by a major highway infrastructure being completed, the East-West Highway. It is a 3-way 1 216&nbsp;km, linking the city of [[Annaba]] in the extreme east to the city of [[Tlemcen]] in the far West. Algeria is also crossed by the [[Trans-Sahara Highway]], which is now totally paved. This road is pushed forward by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed (Algeria, [[Mali]], Niger, [[Nigeria]], Chad and [[Tunisia]]). ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Algeria}} {{Historical populations |title = Historical populations (in thousands) |width = 170px |percentages = pagr |source = (1856–1872)<ref name="Kateb2001">{{cite book|author=Kamel Kateb|title=Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA30|year=2001|publisher=INED|isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9|page=30}}</ref> (1886–2008)<ref name=rgp08p82>{{cite web|title=Armature Urbaine|url=http://www.ons.dz/IMG/armature2008-%20FINAL%281%29.pdf|work=V° Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat – 2008|publisher=Office National des Statistiques|page=82|date=September 2011}}</ref> |1856 |2496 |1872 |2416 |1886 |3752 |1906 |4721 |1926 |5444 |1931 |5902 |1936 |6510 |1948 |7787 |1954 |8615 |1966 |12022 |1977 |16948 |1987 |23051 |1998 |29113 |2008 |34080 |2013 |37900 }} As of a January 2013 estimate, Algeria's population was 37.9&nbsp;million, who are mainly [[Arab-Berber]] ethnically.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/><ref name="Algeria360">{{cite web |url=http://www.algerie360.com/algerie/l%E2%80%99algerie-comptait-379-millions-d%E2%80%99habitants-au-1er-janvier-2013-ons/ |title=L’Algérie comptait 37,9 millions d’habitants au 1er janvier 2013 (ONS) |publisher=Algerie360 |date=17 April 2013 |accessdate=24 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="ber_evidance">{{cite journal|last1=Arredi|first1=Barbara|first2=Estella S.|last2=Poloni|first3=Silvia|last3=Paracchini|first4=Tatiana |last4=Zerjal|last5=Dahmani |first5=M. Fathallah|first6=Mohamed |last6=Makrelouf|last7=Vincenzo |first7=L. Pascali|first8=Andrea |last8=Novelletto|first9=Chris |last9=Tyler-Smith|displayauthors=9|title=A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa|date=7 June 2004 |pmc=1216069 |pmid=15202071 |doi=10.1086/423147 |volume=75 |issue=2 |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |pages=338–45}}</ref> At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/48.htm |title=Algeria&nbsp;– Population |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5&nbsp;million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Women make up 70% of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers.<ref>{{cite news| author=Slackman, Michael |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/26/world/africa/26algeria.html |title=A Quiet Revolution in Algeria: Gains by Women |work=The New York Times |date=26 May 2007 |accessdate=29 August 2011}}</ref> Between 90,000 and 165,000 [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] from Western Sahara live in the [[Sahrawi refugee camps]],<ref name="UNHCRAlgeria">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e485e16.html |title=2013 UNHCR country operations profile - Algeria |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] |year=2013 |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="USCRIAlgeria">{{cite web |url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/algeria.html |title=World Refugee Survey 2009: Algeria |publisher=[[U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants]] |year=2009 |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref> in the western Algerian Sahara desert.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/74134/western-sahara-lack-of-donor-funds-threatens-humanitarian-projects |title=Western Sahara: Lack of Donor Funds Threatens Humanitarian Projects |publisher=[[IRIN]] |date=5 September 2007 |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref> There are also more than 4,000 [[Palestinian refugee]]s, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).<ref name="UNHCRAlgeria"/><ref name="USCRIAlgeria"/> {{As of|2009}}, 35,000 [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] migrant workers lived in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8184499.stm |title=Chinese Migrants in Algiers Clash |publisher=BBC News |date=4 August 2009 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=IMMFRA12_g_Flot1_pop |title=Fiches thématiques – Population immigrée&nbsp;– Immigrés 2012 |publisher=Insee |date= |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> ===Ethnic groups=== {{Main|Ethnic groups in Algeria}} The [[Berbers]] are the indigenous ethnic group of Algeria and are believed to be the ancestral stock on which elements from the [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantines]], [[Arab people|Arabs]], [[Turkish people|Turks]] as well as other ethnic groups have contributed to the [[ethnic]] makeup of Algeria.<ref>{{cite web |author=UNESCO|year=2009|title=Diversité et interculturalité en Algérie|url=http://rabat.unesco.org/IMG/pdf/Diversite_InterculturalitAlgerie.pdf|location=|publisher=UNESCO|page=9}}</ref> Descendants of [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA22 |title=Modern Algeria&nbsp;– The Origins and Development of a Nation |page=22 |author=Ruedy, John Douglas |publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253217820|year=2005}}</ref> [[File:Algerians in traditional costumes.jpg|thumb|left|Algerians in traditional clothes]] The majority of Algerians are [[Berber people|Berbers]] in origins, but a majority identifies with an Arabic-based culture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stokes|first=Jamie|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East: L to Z|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|page=21|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA21|isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Oxford Business Group|title=The Report: Algeria 2011|year=2011|publisher=Oxford Business Group|page=9|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uSGzIPz8cYIC|isbn=978-1-907065-37-8}}</ref> Berbers are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the [[Kabylie]] region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of North-East Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the [[Chenouas|Shenwa people]] of North Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marion Mill Preminger|title=The sands of Tamanrasset: the story of Charles de Foucauld|year=1961|publisher=Hawthorn Books|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xfCfAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} There is also a minority of about 600,000 to 2 million [[Turks in Algeria|Algerian Turks]], descendants of Turks who came to the region during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule in North Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turkish Embassy in Algeria|first=|year=2008|url=http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ|title=Cezayir Ülke Raporu 2008|place=|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |page=4 }}</ref> Today's [[Turkish people|Turkish]] descendants are often called ''[[Kouloughlis]]'', meaning descendants of Turkish men and native Algerian women.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ruedy|first=John Douglas|year=2005|title=Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation|place=|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-21782-2|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stone|first=Martin|year=1997|title=The Agony of Algeria|place=|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=1-85065-177-9|page=29 }}</ref> During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960)<ref name="Cook">{{Cite book | author=Cook, Bernard A. | title=Europe since 1945: an encyclopedia | year=2001 | publisher=Garland | location=New York | isbn=0-8153-4057-5 | pages=398}}</ref> [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] population who became known as ''Pied-Noirs''. They were primarily of French origin, but there were also Spanish colonists in the west of the country, [[Italian people|Italians]] and [[Maltese people|Maltese]] in the east, and other Europeans such as [[Greeks]] in smaller numbers. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25 |title=Migration and Development Co-Operation |page=25 |author=De Azevedo, Raimond Cagiano |publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287126115|year=1994}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Algeria}} [[File:Panneau de signalisation multilingue à Issers (Algérie).jpg|thumb|Traffic sign in [[Isser (municipality)|Isser]] in three languages: [[Arabic]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], and French]] [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is the official language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/algerie_406/presentation-algerie_922/index.html |title=Présentation de l'Algérie |publisher=French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs |date=23 October 2012 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[Algerian Arabic]] (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber. [[Berber language|Berber]] is spoken by one fourth of the population and has been recognized as a "[[national language]]" by the constitutional amendment since 8 May 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/features/2007/06/21/feature-01 |title=L'Algérie crée une académie de la langue amazigh |publisher=Magharebia.com |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> The [[Kabyle language]], the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of [[Kabylie]]. Although French has no official status, Algeria is the second largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.senat.fr/colloques/actes_mondialisation_francophonie/actes_mondialisation_francophonie10.html |title=La mondialisation, une chance pour la francophonie |publisher=Senat.fr |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}} ([http://www.webcitation.org/6FhBDeanP Archive]) "L'Algérie, non-membre de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, comptabilise la seconde communauté francophone au monde, avec environ 16 millions de locuteurs, suivie par la Côte d'Ivoire avec près de 12 millions de locuteurs francophones, le Québec avec 6 millions et la Belgique avec plus de 4 millions de francophones."</ref> and French is still widely used in the government, in culture, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to [[French rule in Algeria|Algeria's colonial history]]. It can be regarded as being the ''de facto'' co-official language of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French.<ref>{{cite web|title=Le dénombrement des francophones|url=http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/1e.pdf|publisher=Organisation internationale de la Francophonie}} ([http://www.webcitation.org/6FhBO8XsN Archive]) p. 9 "Nous y agrégeons néanmoins quelques données disponibles pour des pays n’appartenant pas à l’OIF mais dont nous savons, comme pour l’Algérie (11,2 millions en 2008¹)," and "1. Nombre de personnes âgées de cinq ans et plus déclarant savoir lire et écrire le français, d’après les données du recensement de 2008 communiquées par l’[[Office national des statistiques d’Algérie]]."</ref> Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962.<ref>{{cite web|last=New |first=The |url=http://topics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/algerias-liberation-terrorism-and-arabization/ |title=Algeria's liberation terrorism and Arabization |publisher=blogs.nytimes.com |date= |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> Colloquial [[Algerian Arabic]] is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.<ref name="leclerc">{{cite web | author=Leclerc, Jacques | title = ''Algérie: Situation géographique et démolinguistique'' | work=L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde | language = French | publisher=[[Université Laval]] | date = 5 April 2009 | url = http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/AFRIQUE/algerie-1demo.htm | accessdate =8 January 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100124150058/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/algerie-1demo.htm| archivedate= 24 January 2010 <!-- DASHBot -->| deadurl= no}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in Algeria}} {{See also|Early African Church}} {{bar box | title=Religion in Algeria, 2010 ([[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]])<ref name=pew>[http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/algeria/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Algeria]. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref> | titlebar=#ddd | left1=Religion | right1=Percent | float=right | bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam in Algeria|Islam]]|green|97.8}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion|None]]|black|1.8}} {{bar percent|[[Freedom of religion in Algeria|Other]]|gray|0.4}} }} Islam is the predominant religion with 99% of the population.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> There are about 150,000 [[Ibadi]]s in the M'zab Valley in the region of [[Ghardaia]].<ref>{{verify credibility|date=August 2011|reason=angelfire.com is a user-generated website. linked page is to a "chapter 8" of an unknown work. it presents no credentials of author and no link to a main page.}} {{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/mgcibadi.html |title=Ibadis and Kharijis |publisher=(via [[Angelfire]]) |accessdate=23 April 2010}}</ref> There are an estimated 10,000 [[Christianity in Algeria|Christians in Algeria]] as of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|title=Algerian Christian converts fined|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7433869.stm|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Following the [[Algerian Revolution|Revolution]] and Algerian independence, all but 6,500 of the country's 140,000 Jews left the country, of whom about 90% moved to France with the Pied-Noirs and 10% moved to [[Israel]]. ===Cities=== {{main|List of cities in Algeria}} Below is a list of the most important Algerian cities: {{Largest cities of Algeria}} ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Algeria}} [[File:Bensari2.jpg|thumb|Algerian musicians in Tlemcen. Painting by [[Bachir Yellès]]]] Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, Kabyle and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Kateb Yacine]] and [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of [[Amnesty International]], and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tahar Djaout |publisher=French Publishers' Agency |url=http://www.frenchpubagency.com/?fuseaction=people.main&pid=517 |accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref> [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]]; [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (modern-day [[Souk Ahras]]); and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. The works of the [[Sanusi]] family in pre-colonial times, and of [[Emir Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author [[Apuleius]] was born in [[Madaurus]] (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.{{citation needed|date=August 2011}} Contemporary [[Algerian cinema]] is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Short guide to contemporary Algerian cinema |publisher=Mapping Contemporary Cinema |url=http://www.mcc.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/?p=550}}</ref> ===Art=== [[File:Hamid Tibouchi, 1997.jpg|thumb|[[:fr:Hamid Tibouchi|Hamid Tibouchi]], a painter and calligrapher]] Algerian painters, like [[:fr:Mohamed Racim|Mohamed Racim]] or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, [[Mohamed Temam]], [[Abdelkhader Houamel]] have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of [[M'hamed Issiakhem]], [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[Bachir Yelles]], appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. [[Mohammed Khadda]]<ref name=art>{{cite web|url=http://www.khadda.com/ |title=Mohammed Khadda |publisher=Khadda.com |date= |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> and [[M'hamed Issiakhem]] have been notable in recent years.<ref name=art/> ===Literature=== {{Main|Algerian literature|List of Algerian writers}} The historic roots of Algerian literature goes back to the [[Numidia]]n era, when [[Apuleius]] wrote ''[[The Golden Ass]]'', the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Nonius Marcellus]] and [[Martianus Capella]], among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like [[Ahmad al-Buni]], [[Ibn Manzur]] and [[Ibn Khaldoun]], who wrote the [[Muqaddimah]] while staying in Algeria, and many others. [[Albert Camus]] was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in literature]]. {{double image|right|Lucius Apuleius Platonicus, from 'Crabbes Historical Dictionary', published in 1825 (C19).jpg|120|Kateb Yacine Nedjma authograph.jpg|120|[[Apuleius]]|[[Kateb Yacine]]}} Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French. As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the ''Algerian trilogy'' of [[Mohammed Dib]], or even ''Nedjma'' of [[Kateb Yacine]] novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include [[Mouloud Feraoun]], [[Malek Bennabi]], [[Malek Haddad]], [[Moufdi Zakaria]], [[Ibn Badis]], Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, [[Mouloud Mammeri]], [[Frantz Fanon]], and [[Assia Djebar]]. In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are [[Rachid Boudjedra]], [[Rachid Mimouni]], [[Leila Sebbar]], [[Tahar Djaout]] and [[Tahir Wattar]]. Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, ''the swallows of Kabul'' and ''the attack'' of [[Yasmina Khadra]], ''the oath of barbarians'' of [[Boualem Sansal]], ''memory of the flesh'' of [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] and the last novel by Assia Djebar ''nowhere in my father's House''. ===Music=== {{Main| Music of Algeria}} [[File:Dahman harrachi.jpg|150px|thumbnail|left|[[Dahmane El Harrachi]]]] [[Chaabi (Algeria)|Chaâbi music]] is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (Popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is [[El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka]]. The Constantinois [[Andalusian classical music|Malouf]] style is saved by musician from whom [[Mohamed Tahar Fergani]] is one of the best performers. [[File:Cheb Khaled performed in Oran on July 5th 2011.jpg|150px|thumbnail|Right|[[Khaled (musician)|Cheb Khaled]] King [[raï]] ]] Folk music styles include [[Bedouin music]], characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the [[Aurès Mountains]]. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. [[Souad Massi]] is a becoming-famous Algerian singer of traditional songs. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include [[Manel Filali]] in Germany and [[Kenza Farah]] in France. Tergui music is sung in [[Tuareg languages]] generally, [[Tinariwen]] had a world wide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in [[Sétif]] and remains a unique style of its kind. Modern music is available in several facets, [[Raï]] music is a style typical of Western Algeria. [[Algeria Rap|Rap]], relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth. ===Cinema=== {{Main|Cinema of Algeria}} {{Empty section|date=April 2014}} ===Sports=== {{Main|Sport in Algeria}} [[File:Stade 5 Juillet 01.jpg|thumb|[[Stade 5 Juillet 1962]] of [[Algiers]]]] Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the [[Aurès Mountains|Aures]], people played several games such As El Kherdba or El khergueba ([[chess]] variant). Playing cards, [[checkers]] and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing ([[Fantasia (culture)|fantasia]]) and the [[rifle shooting]] are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/15001/Algeria/220546/Sports-and-recreation | title=Sports and recreation | accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> The first Algerian, Arab and African gold medalist is [[Boughera El Ouafi]] in [[1928 Summer Olympics|1928 Olympics of Amsterdam]] in the [[Marathon]]. The second Algerian Medalist was [[Alain Mimoun]] in [[1956 Summer Olympics]] in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including [[Noureddine Morceli]], [[Hassiba Boulmerka]], [[Nouria Mérah-Benida|Nouria Merah-Benida]], and [[Taoufik Makhloufi]], all specialized in [[middle distance running]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/2012/countries/algeria/athletes | title=Algeria | accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> [[Football in Algeria|Football]] is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including [[Lakhdar Belloumi]], [[Rachid Mekhloufi]], [[Hacène Lalmas|Hassen Lalmas]], [[Rabah Madjer]], [[Salah Assad]] and [[Djamel Zidane]]. The [[Algeria national football team]] qualified for the [[1982 FIFA World Cup]], [[1986 FIFA World Cup]],[[2010 FIFA World Cup]] and [[2014 FIFA World Cup]]. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club [[ES Sétif]] or [[JS Kabylia]]. The [[Algerian Football Federation]] is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www1.skysports.com/football/teams/algeria | title=Algeria national football team | accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Algerian cuisine}} [[File:Bulgur wheat salad.jpg|thumb|A [[Couscous]] based Salad]] Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the "granary of Rome". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present. Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and/or vegetables. Among the dishes known, [[couscous]],<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8804/ |title = Luce Ben Aben, Moorish Women Preparing Couscous, Algiers, Algeria |website = [[World Digital Library]] |year = 1899 |accessdate = 26 September 2013 }}</ref> the [[chorba]], the Rechta, the Chakhchoukha, the Berkoukes, the Shakshouka, the Mthewem, the Chtitha, the Mderbel, the Dolma, the Brik or Bourek, the Garantita, Lham'hlou, etc. [[Merguez]] sausage is very used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices. The cakes are marketed and can the found in cities either in Algeria or in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes made at home have a vast directory of revenue, according to the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya, Mghergchette. The Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes and it is marketed. The bread may be cooked such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other tradionel meals (Chakhchokha-Hassoua-T'chicha-Mahjouba and Doubara) are famous in Biskra. ==Health== {{Main|Health in Algeria}} In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause [[tuberculosis]], [[hepatitis]], [[measles]], [[typhoid fever]], [[cholera]] and [[dysentery]]. The poor generally receive health care free of charge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Algeria.pdf |title=Library of Congress Country Studies – Algeria |format=PDF }}</ref> Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the South to their Vital record database in 1905 during French rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kemp, Thomas Jay |title=International Vital Records Handbook|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=afnc6_o5AqoC&pg=PA347|year=2009|publisher=Genealogical Publishing Com|isbn=978-0-8063-1793-9|page=347}}</ref> ==Education== {{Main|Education in Algeria|List of universities in Algeria}} [[File:Med Alger.jpg|thumb|[[Algiers]] Medical School]] Since the 1970s, in a centralized system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which the school became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%.<ref name="illit"/> Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presse-dz.com/revue-de-presse/version-imprimable/1045-les-verites-de-benbouzid.html |title=Ecoles privées, Tamazight, enseignement du Français, syndicats&nbsp;... – Les vérités de Benbouzid |publisher=Presse-dz.com |date= |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> Apart from the 122 private, learning at school, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the Bachelor's degree, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algerie-dz.com/article10808.html |title=Le taux d'analphabétisme en Algérie est de 21,3% |publisher=Algerie-dz.com |date= |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was [[Algiers Province]] at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was [[Djelfa Province]] at 35.5%.<ref name="illit">{{cite web|title=Taux d'Analphabétisme et taux d'Alphabétisation de la population âgée de 10 ans et plus selon le sexe et la wilaya de résidence|url=http://www.ons.dz/IMG/pdf/pop9_national.pdf|publisher=Office National des Statistiques}}</ref> Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The University of Algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). 25 of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country. Even if some of them offer instruction in [[Arabic]] like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the University of sciences and technology Houari Boumediene, the University of Mentouri Constantine, Oran Es-Senia University. Best universities of qualifications remain the University of Tlemcen and Batna Hadj Lakhdar, they occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa, which is a very bad standing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webometrics.info/en/Africa/Algeria |title=Algeria &#124; Ranking Web of Universities |publisher=Webometrics.info |date= |accessdate=18 January 2013}}</ref> ==See also== {{Contains Tifinagh text|compact=yes}} * [[Index of Algeria-related articles]] * [[Outline of Algeria]] * {{wikipedia books link|Algeria}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Bibliography== {{refbegin|30em}} * Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). ''Modern Algeria&nbsp;– A History from 1830 to the Present''. Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: [[C. Hurst & Co|Hurst]]. ISBN 978-0-86543-266-6. * Aghrout, Ahmed; Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). ''Algeria in Transition&nbsp;– Reforms and Development Prospects''. [[Routledge]]. ISBN 978-0-415-34848-5. * Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). ''The Making of Contemporary Algeria&nbsp;– Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 978-0-521-30150-3. * [[Frantz Fanon|Fanon, Frantz]] (1966; 2005 paperback). ''The Wretched of the Earth''. [[Grove Press]]. ASIN B0007FW4AW, ISBN 978-0-8021-4132-3. * [[Alistair Horne|Horne, Alistair]] (1977). ''A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962''. [[Viking Adult]]. ISBN 978-0-670-61964-1, ISBN 978-1-59017-218-6 (2006 reprint) * Laouisset, Djamel (2009). ''A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry''. New York City: [[Nova Publishers]]. ISBN 978-1-61761-190-2. * Roberts, Hugh (2003). ''The Battlefield&nbsp;– Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity''. London: [[Verso Books]]. ISBN 978-1-85984-684-1. * Ruedy, John (1992). ''Modern Algeria&nbsp;– The Origins and Development of a Nation''. Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]]. ISBN 978-0-253-34998-9. * Stora, Benjamin (2001). ''Algeria, 1830–2000&nbsp;– A Short History''. Ithaca, New York: [[Cornell University Press]]. ISBN 978-0-8014-3715-1. * Sidaoui, Riadh (2009). "Islamic Politics and the Military&nbsp;– Algeria 1962–2008". [http://books.google.com/books?id=UouRFVxywIQC ''Religion and Politics&nbsp;– Islam and Muslim Civilisation'']. Farnham: [[Ashgate Publishing]]. ISBN 0-7546-7418-5. {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Algeria|Algeria}} {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|Algeria}} * [http://www.el-mouradia.dz/ People's Democratic Republic of Algeria] ''official government website'' {{ar icon}} / {{fr icon}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|ag|Algeria}} * {{GovPubs|algeria}} * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Algeria}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14118852 Algeria profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas|Algeria}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=DZ Key Development Forecasts for Algeria] from [[International Futures]] * [http://www.enpi-info.eu/countrymed.php?country=1 EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Algeria] {{Geographic location | Northwest = '''[[Mediterranean Sea]]''' | North = '''[[Mediterranean Sea]]''' | Northeast ='''[[Mediterranean Sea]]''' | West = {{Flagicon|Morocco}} <br /> {{Flagicon|Western Sahara}} | Centre = {{flagicon|Algeria|50px}} | East = {{Flagicon|Tunisia}} <br /> {{Flagicon|Libya}} | Southwest = {{Flagicon|Mauritania}} | South = {{Flagicon|Mali}} | Southeast = {{Flagicon|Niger}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Articles relating to Algeria |list = {{Algeria topics|state=uncollapsed}} {{Navboxes |title = Geographic locale |list = {{Countries and territories of North Africa}} {{Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea}} {{Middle East}} {{Navboxes |title = International membership |list = {{Arab League}} {{African Union}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|state=collapsed}} {{G-15 nations}} }} }} }} {{Portal bar|Algeria|Africa|Mediterranean|Geography}} [[Category:Algeria| ]] [[Category:Arab republics]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Member states of OPEC]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:North African countries]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Arabic)]] [[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Berber)]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1962]] [[Category:World Digital Library related]] hsbjn4txcxxaj478zai0haqrty7l1xl wikitext text/x-wiki 0 359 601549819 595842450 2014-03-27T19:36:23Z 65.128.41.116 /* Dagny Taggart */ {{DISPLAYTITLE:List of ''Atlas Shrugged'' characters}} This is a list of characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]].'' ==Major characters== The following are major characters from the novel.<ref>Characters are listed as "major" if they meet one of the following criteria: *they are listed as "major" characters in a widely available study guide, such as [[CliffsNotes]], [[SparkNotes]], or [[Gale (Cengage)|Gale's]] ''Novels for Students''; *they are listed as "primary heroic" or "arch-villain" characters in Gladstein's ''The New Ayn Rand Companion''; *they are the focus of an essay in a scholarly book about the novel, such as ''Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged'' or ''Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged''.</ref> ===Protagonists=== ====Dagny Taggart==== <!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Taylor-Schilling-as-Dagny-Taggart.jpg|thumb|upright=0.56|right|[[Taylor Schilling]] as Dagny Taggart in the 2011 film.]] --> Dagny Taggart is the [[protagonist]] of the novel. She is Vice-President in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. However, due to James' incompetence, it is Dagny who is responsible for all the workings of the railroad. ====Francisco d'Anconia==== Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged'', and owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire. He is a childhood friend, and the first love of Dagny Taggart. A child prodigy of exceptional talents, Francisco was dubbed the "climax" of the d'Anconia line, an already prestigious family of skilled industrialists. He attended Patrick Henry University and was a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. He began working at a young age, while still in school, proving that he could have made a successful career on his own merits without the aid of his family's wealth and power. Francisco is one of the strikers and is slowly destroying the d'Anconia empire to put it out of the raiders' reach. His actions were designed both to "trap" looters into relying upon his worthless ventures in order to disrupt their schemes and to try to show the inevitable consequences of looting. He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover. However, he is forced to give up Dagny, knowing that she would not be ready to join the strikers. He remains deeply in love with her throughout the book, while also being a good and loyal friend of her other two lovers, Hank Rearden and John Galt. His full name is given as Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia.<ref>The accent in the given name ''Sebastián'' is in accordance with [[Spanish orthography]]; however, the same rule would require writing ''Andrés''.</ref> ====John Galt==== {{Main|John Galt}} The enigmatic John Galt is the primary male hero of ''Atlas Shrugged.'' He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental, who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employee's cafeteria, and leads Eddie to reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given in the novel. Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on; these men are consistently the next to disappear. Later in the novel, the reader discovers this worker's true identity. Before working for Taggart Transcontinental, Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company. While there, he invented his generator that produced usable electric energy from static electricity in the environment. His Prototype may or may not have been completed when he left due to the management deciding on a communistic pay system. This prototype was found by Dagny when she and Hank Rearden made a trip to the long-closed Twentieth Century Motor factory. Dagny would hire Quentin Daniels to try to figure out how the machine worked. Galt would take over the radio airwaves during Mr. Thompson's much heralded speech at the end of the book and give his long soliloquy. ====Henry "Hank" Rearden==== Henry (also known as "Hank") is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged''. Like many of Rand's capitalist characters, he is a self-made man. He owns the most important steel company in the United States. He invents Rearden Metal, an [[alloy]] stronger than steel (with similar properties to stainless steel). He lives in [[Philadelphia]] with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother, all of whom he supports. Hank Rearden knows something is wrong with the world but he is unable to define the problem. His friend, Francisco d'Anconia, helps him understand and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in Galt's Speech. Rearden also serves to illustrate Rand's [[Atlas Shrugged#Theory of sex|theory of sex]]. Lillian Rearden cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex. Dagny Taggart clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into sexual desire. Rearden is torn because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, but he responds sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values. Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict, and in doing so, illustrates Rand's sexual theory. ====Eddie Willers==== Edwin "Eddie" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. He grew up with Dagny Taggart. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man: someone who does not possess the Promethean creative ability of The Strikers, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, he does everything he can to keep the railroad running as the country falls apart. When the train he is riding on breaks down, he tries in vain to repair it as the passengers and crew abandon him, then collapses sobbing on the tracks. ====Ragnar Danneskjöld==== One of the original strikers, he is now world famous as a [[pirate]]. Ragnar attended Patrick Henry University and became friends with John Galt and Francisco d'Anconia while studying under Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. Danneskjöld seizes relief ships that are being sent from the United States to The People's States of Europe. As the novel progresses, Danneskjöld begins to become active in American waters. Danneskjöld's action is to restore to other creative people the money, in gold, which was unjustly taken away from them—specifically, their [[income tax]] payments. He explains this is not [[altruism]]; his motivation is to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are restored to their rightful place in society, they will have enough capital to rebuild the world. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance when he risks his life to meet Hank Rearden in the night and hand him a bar of gold as an "advance payment" to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation. Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a [[film star]] who retired and dropped out of sight. It is mentioned that some of the strikers have strong reservations about his way of "conducting the common struggle." According to [[Barbara Branden]], who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea, which were cut from the final published text.<ref>Reedstrom, Karen. [http://barbarabranden.com/interview4.html 1992 Interview with Full Context]. Barbara Branden interview in ''Full Context'', October 1992. Republished on barbarabranden.com. Retrieved 1 June 2007.</ref> In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo. The hero of Hugo's novel, ''Hans of Iceland'', becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden), except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter. ===Antagonists=== ====James Taggart==== The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is, however, incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the looters is revealed: it is a code of stagnation. The goal of this code is to not exist, to not move forward, to become a zero. Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal. He maintains his pretense that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect. ====Lillian Rearden==== The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden. They have been married eight years as the novel begins. Lillian is a frigid moocher who seeks to destroy her husband. She compares being Rearden's wife with owning the world's most powerful horse. Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be grievously wasted. Lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is "realistic" enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts. She indicates that she abhors Francisco d'Anconia, because she believes he is a sexual adventurer. As her motives become more clear, Lillian is found to share the sentiments of many other moochers and their worship of destruction. Her actions are explained as the desire to destroy achievement in the false belief that such an act bestows a greatness to the destroyer equal to the accomplishment destroyed. She seeks, then, to ruin Rearden in an effort to prove her own value. Lillian achieves her goal to destroy Rearden's business, when she passes on information to James Taggart about her husband's affair. This information is used to persuade Rearden to sign the Gift Certificate (which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to the looters) and thereby destroys his business. Lillian discovers that she can accomplish her goal to destroy the business but she can neither achieve the greatness she desires nor her goal to destroy Hank's character. She uses James Taggart for sex as victory and revenge against Hank and Dagny. This does give her the satisfaction she desires and she continues to manipulate Hank until he finally leaves her and joins Galt's strikers. ====Dr. Floyd Ferris==== Ferris is a biologist who works as "co-ordinator" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement, and publishes a book entitled ''Why Do You Think You Think?'' He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden, and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon, and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader, a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters, Ferris uses the device on Galt, but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters. ====Dr. Robert Stadler==== A former professor at Patrick Henry University, and along with colleague Hugh Akston, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: Project X (Xylophone). The character was, in part, modeled on [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of [[nuclear weapons]].<ref>David Harriman, ''[[Journals of Ayn Rand]]'', pp. 311-344, esp. 330-331.</ref> To his former student Galt, Stadler represents the epitome of human evil, as the "man who knew better" but chose not to act for the good. ====Wesley Mouch==== The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill (which, by restricting the number of businesses each person may own to one, forces Hank to divest most of his companies), he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator, a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country. ==Secondary characters== The following secondary characters also appear in the novel.<ref>Secondary characters are listed if they appear in character lists from any of the works used to establish the list of major characters above, but do not meet the criteria for "major." Minor characters who are not listed in secondary works are not listed here.</ref> *'''Hugh Akston''' is identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner, and proves extremely skillful at that. When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. He is based on [[Aristotle]]. *'''Jeff Allen''' is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company (Rand's extensive metaphor for the inherent flaws of communism), as well as a hint of John Galt's true background. *'''Calvin Atwood''' is owner of Atwood Light and Power Company and joins Galt's strike. *'''Mayor Bascom''' is the mayor of Rome, Wisconsin, who reveals part of the history of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. *'''Bill Brent''' is the chief dispatcher for the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental, who tries to prevent the Taggart Tunnel disaster. *'''Dr. Blodgett''' is the scientist who pulls the lever to demonstrate Project X. *'''Orren Boyle''' is the head of Associated Steel, antithesis of Hank Rearden and a friend of James Taggart. He is an investor in the San Sebastián Mines. He disappears from the story after having a nervous breakdown following the failed 'unification' of the steel industry. *'''Laura Bradford''' is an actress and Kip Chalmers's mistress. *'''Cherryl Brooks''' is a dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having believed Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misdirected, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to - she thought she was marrying someone like Dagny. She eventually commits suicide, unable to live with her worthless husband, and unable to escape. *'''Millie Bush''' was "a mean, ugly little eight-year-old" girl voted to receive gold braces to straighten her teeth by the Marxist "family" committee who determined how pay was allocated at The Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her teeth are later knocked out by a man denied an allowance by the committee to purchase the things he valued. *'''Kip Chalmers''' is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as Legislator from California. On the way to his campaign, the Taggart Transcontinental train that is carrying him encounters a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine. His demands lead to a coal-burning steam engine being attached to his train in its stead and used to pull it through an eight-mile tunnel. The result is the suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the Taggart Tunnel. *'''Emma Chalmers''', Kip Chalmers's mother, gains some influence after his death. Known as "Kip's Ma," she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railcars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country, but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early. *'''Dan Conway''' is the middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of [[Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. *'''Ken Danagger''' owns Danagger Coal in Pennsylvania. He helps Hank Rearden illegally make Rearden Metal, then later decides to quit and join Galt's strike moments before Dagny arrives to try to persuade him otherwise. *'''Quentin Daniels''' is an enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to Galt's Gulch. *'''Sebastian d'Anconia''' was the 16th (or 17th) Century founder of the d'Anconia dynasty. Escaped from Spain because of expressing his opinions too freely and coming in conflict with the [[Inquisition]], leaving behind a palace and his beloved. Started a small mine in South America, which became the beginning of a mining empire and a new fortune (and a new palace). Eventually sent for his beloved who had waited for him many years. He is the role model which Francisco d'Anconia looks to, as Dagny Taggart looks to Nathaniel Taggart. Francisco remarks that their respective ancestors would have liked each other. *'''Balph Eubank''' is called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that he has never sold more than three thousand copies of his books. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies. He is a [[misogynist]] who thinks it disgusting that Dagny Taggart is a railroad president. *The '''Fishwife''' is one of the strikers, who earns her living by providing the fish for Hammond’s grocery market; she is described as having "dark, disheveled hair and large eyes", and is a writer. Galt says she "wouldn't be published outside. She believes that when one deals with words, one deals with the mind." According to Barbara Branden in her book ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', "The [[Fishwife]] is Ayn's [[List of Hitchcock cameo appearances|Hitchcock-like]] appearance in ''Atlas Shrugged''."<ref name="Branden1986">{{cite book|author=Barbara Branden|title=The passion of Ayn Rand|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B-AEAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=24 October 2010|date=20 May 1986|publisher=Doubleday|page=229}}</ref> So says too Leonard Peikoff.<ref>{{cite web|author=Leonard Peikoff |url=http://www.peikoff.com/2012/09/10/in-atlas-shrugged-when-john-is-giving-dagny-the-tour |title=In Atlas Shrugged, when John is giving Dagny the tour of the valley, there is a character briefly introduced who is identified as a writer and who matches Ayn Rand’s physical description. Did Ayn Rand intend this character to be a representation of herself? « Podcast « Peikoff |publisher=Peikoff.com |date=10 September 2012 |accessdate=21 September 2012}}</ref> *'''Lawrence Hammond''' runs Hammond Cars in Colorado, one of the few companies in existence that still produces top-quality vehicles. He eventually quits and joins the strike. *'''Richard Halley''' is Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24, his opera ''[[Phaethon]]'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. After 19 years, Phaethon was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. It is later revealed that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. *'''Mrs. William Hastings''' is the widow of the chief engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her husband quit shortly after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Her lead allows Dagny to find Hugh Akston. *'''Dr. Thomas Hendricks''' is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control. *'''Tinky Holloway''' is one of the "looters" and is frequently referred to and quoted by other characters in the story, but he has only one major appearance: during the Washington meeting with Hank Rearden. *'''Lee Hunsacker''' is in charge of a company called Amalgamated Service when takes over the Twentieth Century Motor Company. He files a lawsuit that eventually leads to Midas Mulligan and Judge Narragansett joining the strike. A failed businessman, he laments constantly that no-one ever gave him a chance. *'''Gwen Ives''' is Hank Rearden's secretary. *'''Owen Kellogg''' is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division, she decides to make him its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. Owen Kellogg eventually reaches, and settles in, Galt's Gulch. *'''Fred Kinnan''' is a labor leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. Kinnan is the only one to openly state the true motivations of himself and his fellow conspirators. At the end of Galt's 3 hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy. *'''Paul Larkin''' is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family. He meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. *'''Eugene Lawson''' heads the Community Bank of Madison, then gets a job with the government when it his bank goes bankrupt. One of the looter's cabal, he is a collectivist who abhors production and money-making. *'''Mort Liddy''' is a [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies to which no one listens. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite. *'''Clifton Locey''' is a friend of Jim Taggart who takes the position of vice-president of operation when Dagny Taggart quits. *'''Pat Logan''' is the engineer on the first run of the John Galt Line. He later strikes. *'''Kay Ludlow''' is a beautiful actress and the wife of Ragnar Danneskjöld. *'''Dick McNamara''' is a contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line. Dagny Taggart plans to hire him to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line, but before she does so, he mysteriously disappears. She later discovers that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. *'''Cuffy Meigs''' is the Director of Unification for the railroad business. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, and he dresses in a military uniform, and has been described as "impervious to thought". Meigs seizes control of Project X and accidentally destroys it, demolishing the country's last railroad bridge across the Mississippi River and killing himself, his men, and Dr. Stadler. *'''Dave Mitchum''' is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for the Taggart Tunnel disaster. *'''Chick Morrison''' holds the position of "Morale Conditioner" in the government. He quits when society begins to collapse and flees to a stronghold in Tennessee. His fellow looters consider it unlikely that he will survive. *'''Horace Bussby Mowen''' is the president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. Dagny Taggart hires Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be cajoled into accepting the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. *'''Midas Mulligan''' is a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down he liquidated his entire business, paid off his depositors, and joined Galt's strike. He is the legal owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him "[[Midas]]" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment. *'''Judge Narragansett''' is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. At the end of the novel, he is seen editing the [[United States Constitution]], crossing out the contradicting amendments of it and adding an amendment to prohibit Congress from passing laws that restrain freedom of trade. *'''Ben Nealy''' is a railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. *'''Betty Pope''' is a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. *'''Dr. Potter''' holds some undefined position with the State Science Institute. He is sent to try to obtain the rights to Rearden Metal. *'''Dr. Simon Pritchett''' is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He believes that man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, reason is a superstition, it is futile to seek meaning in life, and the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. *'''Rearden's mother''', whose name is not mentioned, lives with Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden. *'''Philip Rearden''' is the younger brother of Hank Rearden. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He is resentful of his brother's charity. *'''Dwight Sanders''' owns Sanders Aircraft, a producer of high-quality airplanes, and joins the strike. *'''Bertram Scudder''' is an editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Scudder claims that the most important thing in life is "brother love" but seems to have nothing but hatred for those around him. He loses his job after Dagny Taggart reveals her affair with Hank Rearden over air on his radio show. *'''Claude Slagenhop''' is president of political organization Friends of Global Progress and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. *'''Gerald and Ivy Starnes''' are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes; together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program at Twentieth Century Motors which drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a [[New Age|pseudo-Buddhist]] ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Eric was a weak, attention-seeking man with a pathological desire to be loved. He committed suicide after the woman he loved married another man. Gerald is a vain, frivolous incompetent who claims to be altruistic while throwing lavish parties using money that should be paid to his employees. Ivy meanwhile is described as "pure evil", a sadist who revels in the poverty of others but has no desire for money or power herself. *'''Andrew Stockton''' runs the Stockton Foundry in Stockton, Colorado. When he joins the strike, he opens a foundry in Galt's Gulch. *'''Nathaniel Taggart''' was the founder of Taggart Transcontinental. He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit. He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country. He never earned money by force or fraud (except for bribing government officials and throwing an opponent down a flight of stairs), and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful. He was one of the most hated men of his time. Dagny is often inspired by looking at a statue of Nat Taggart at the railroad headquarters. *'''Mr. Thompson''' is the "[[Head of State|Head of the State]]" for the United States. He is not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modeled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]], and that she deliberately decided not to call him "President of the United States" as this title has "honorable connotations" which the character does not deserve. *'''Lester Tuck''' is the press agent for Kip Chalmers. *'''Clem Weatherby''' is a government representative on the board of directors of Taggart Transcontinental. Dagny considers him the least bad of the government representatives, since he does have some real knowledge on the running of trains. She notices, however, that he is the least appreciated by his own bosses. *The '''Wet Nurse (Tony)''' is a young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden’s mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters’ code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies. *'''Ellis Wyatt''' is the head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for extracting more oil from what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are, in fact, her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. When the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he sets all his oil wells on fire, leaving a jeering note: "I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours." One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as "Wyatt's Torch". Later Dagny meets him in Galt's Gulch. ==See also== *[[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== *{{cite book |title=The New Ayn Rand Companion |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30321-5 |oclc=40359365}} *{{cite book |title=Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7391-2779-7}} *{{cite book|title=Atlas Shrugged | last1=Rand | first1=Ayn | last2=Peikoff | first2=Leonard | location=University of Michigan | publisher=Dutton | year=1992 | isbn=0-525-93418-9}} *{{cite book |title=Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion |editor-last=Younkins |editor-first=Edward W. |location=Burlington, Vermont |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=0-7546-5533-4}} {{Atlas Shrugged}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Atlas Shrugged Characters, List of}} [[Category:Atlas Shrugged characters| ]] [[Category:Fictional socialites]] [[Category:Lists of literary characters]] hyf43zhoobddpa35tm6twsoc9p7eyng wikitext text/x-wiki 0 369 47338120 46943215 2006-04-07T01:13:13Z IrishJew 1177728 Redirect to Atlas Shrugged, moved content. See talk page. #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] 8y6kuee175vma542zlu1xj89yrdvova wikitext text/x-wiki 0 569 601112300 601112288 2014-03-24T23:32:06Z ClueBot NG 13286072 Reverting possible vandalism by [[Special:Contributions/120.150.222.225|120.150.222.225]] to version by Chiswick Chap. False positive? [[User:ClueBot NG/FalsePositives|Report it]]. Thanks, [[User:ClueBot NG|ClueBot NG]]. (1761499) (Bot) {{About|the social science}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Anthropology}} '''Anthropology''' {{IPAc-en|æ|n|θ|r|ɵ|ˈ|p|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i}} is the study of [[humankind]], past and present,<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Anthropology|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/anthropology?q=anthropology|work=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher=Oxford University Press|accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/27505/anthropology "anthropology"] at Britannica Online Encyclopedia</ref> that draws and builds upon knowledge from [[social science|social]] and [[biological science]]s, as well as the [[humanities]] and the [[natural science]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Anthropology?|url=http://www.aaanet.org/about/whatisanthropology.cfm|publisher=American Anthropological Association|accessdate=10 August 2013}}</ref><ref>Wolf, Eric (1994) ''Perilous Ideas: Race, Culture, People.'' ''[[Current Anthropology]]'' 35: 1-7. p.227</ref> Since the work of [[Franz Boas]] and [[Bronisław Malinowski]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, anthropology in Great Britain and the US has been distinguished from [[ethnology]]<ref>Han F. Vermeulen, "The German Invention of ''Völkerkunde:'' Ethnological Discourse in Europe and Asia, 1740–1798." In: Sara Eigen and Mark Larrimore, eds. ''The German Invention of Race.'' 2006.</ref> and from other social sciences by its emphasis on [[cross-cultural studies|cross-cultural comparisons]], long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance it places on [[Participant observation|participant-observation]] or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology in particular has emphasized [[cultural relativism]], [[holism]], and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques.<ref name="Hylland Eriksen 2004 p. 79">Hylland Eriksen, Thomas. (2004) "What is Anthropology" Pluto. London. p. 79.</ref> This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas's arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through [[Margaret Mead]]'s advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial]] oppression and promotion of [[multiculturalism]]. [[Ethnography]] is one of its primary methods as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.<ref name="Ingold1994p331"/><ref name="Spiro1987">On varieties of cultural relativism in anthropology, see Spiro, Melford E. (1987) "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason," in ''Culture and Human Nature: theoretical papers of Melford E. Spiro''. Edited by B. Kilborne and L. L. Langness, pp.&nbsp;32–58. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name="Heyck1997">{{cite journal|last1=Heyck|first1=Thomas William|last2=Stocking|first2=George W.|last3=Goody|first3=Jack|title=After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888–1951.|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=102|issue=5|year=1997|pages=1486–1488|issn=00028762|doi=10.2307/2171126|jstor=2171126}}</ref> While in Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of [[Social Anthropology]] tends to dominate, in the United States anthropology is traditionally divided into the [[four field approach]] developed by [[Franz Boas]] in the early 20th century: [[Biological anthropology|biological or physical anthropology]], [[social anthropology]] or [[cultural anthropology]], [[archaeology]] and [[linguistic anthropology|anthropological linguistics]]. These fields frequently overlap, but tend to use different methodologies and techniques. In those European countries that did not have overseas colonies, where [[ethnology]] (a term coined and defined by [[Adam František Kollár|Adam F. Kollár]] in 1783) was more widespread, [[social anthropology]] is now defined as the study of social organization in non-state societies and is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.<ref>Layton, Robert (1998) ''An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> ==Origin of the term== The term ''[[wiktionary:anthropology|anthropology]]'' originates from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''anthrōpos'' ({{lang|grc|ἄνθρωπος}}), "human being" (understood to mean humankind or humanity), and -λογία ''[[wiktionary:-logia|-logia]]'', "study." ==Fields== {{further|American anthropology}} Anthropology is a global discipline where humanities, social, and natural sciences are forced to confront one another. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from [[natural sciences]], including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'', human physical traits, [[human behavior]], the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of ''Homo sapiens'' has influenced its social organization and culture, and from [[social sciences]], including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc.<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/about/WhatisAnthropology.cfm What is Anthropology - American Anthropological Association]</ref><ref>[http://anthropologyreport.com/what-is-anthropology/ What is Anthropology - Anthropology Report]</ref> Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity.<ref>Harris, Marvin. ''The Rise of Anthropological Theory''. Alta Mira Press. 2000 (revised from 1968); Harris, Marvin. ''Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times. Altamira. 1998''</ref><ref name=Ahmed>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ahmed | first1 = Akbar S. | year = 1984 | title = Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist | url = | journal = RAIN | volume = 60 | issue = 60| pages = 9–10 | doi = 10.2307/3033407 }}</ref> As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as [[cognitive science]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Language, Anthropology and Cognitive Science |author=Bloch, Maurice |authorlink=Maurice Bloch |jstor=2803828 |year=1991 |publisher=London School of Economics and Political Science |pages=183–198 |volume=26 |issue=2 |journal=Man |doi=10.2307/2803828 |ref=harv }}</ref> [[global studies]], and various [[ethnic studies]]. According to [[Clifford Geertz]], {{quotation|"anthropology is perhaps the last of the great nineteenth-century conglomerate disciplines still for the most part organizationally intact. Long after natural history, moral philosophy, philology, and political economy have dissolved into their specialized successors, it has remained a diffuse assemblage of ethnology, human biology, comparative linguistics, and prehistory, held together mainly by the vested interests, sunk costs, and administrative habits of academia, and by a romantic image of comprehensive scholarship."<ref>{{cite book|title=Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle|year=2005|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham and London|pages=Back Cover|editor=Daniel A. Segal & Sylvia J. Yanagisako}}</ref>}} Sociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by [[structuralism|structuralist]] and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an [[epistemological]] shift away from the [[positivist]] traditions that had largely informed the discipline.<ref>Geertz, Behar, Clifford & James</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2012}} During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades. ===Sociocultural=== {{main|Cultural anthropology|Social anthropology}} Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of [[cultural anthropology]] and [[social anthropology]]. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people ''make sense'' of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the ''relationships'' among persons and groups.<ref name="Ingold1994pxv">{{cite encyclopedia | title=GENERAL INTRODUCTION | encyclopedia=Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology | author=[[Tim Ingold]] | editor=Tim Ingold | year=1994 | pages=xv | ref=harv}}</ref> Cultural anthropology is more akin to [[philosophy]], literature and [[the arts]], while social anthropology to [[sociology]] and history.<ref name="Ingold1994pxv"/> Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by [[cultural relativism]], the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values.<ref name="Ingold1994p331">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Introduction to culture | encyclopedia=Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology | author=[[Tim Ingold]] | editor=Tim Ingold | year=1994 | page=331 | ref=harv}}</ref> Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison.<ref name="Ingold1996p18">{{cite book | title=Key Debates In Anthropology | author=[[Tim Ingold]] | year=1996| page=18|quote=the traditional anthropological project of cross-cultural or cross-societal comparison}}</ref> This project is often accommodated in the field of [[ethnography]]. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and a product of research, namely a monograph or book. As methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. [[Participant observation]] is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.<ref>Bernard, H. Russell, ''Research Methods in Anthropology''. Altamira Press, 2002. p.322.</ref> [[Ethnology]] involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an [[emic]] (conceptual, vs. [[etic]], or technical) point of view. The study of [[kinship]] and [[social organization]] is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a [[human universal]]. Sociocultural anthropology also covers [[Economic anthropology|economic]] and [[Political anthropology|political organization]], law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology). Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. Cultures in the [[Standard Cross-Cultural Sample]] (SCCS) <ref name="MurdockWhite1969">{{cite journal | title=Standard Cross-Cultural Sample | journal=Ethnology | author=[[George Peter Murdock]] | author2=Douglas R. White | year=1969 | volume=9 | pages=329–369 | ref=harv | url=http://repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/socdyn/wp/Standard_Cross-Cultural_Sample | authorlink2=Douglas R. White}}</ref> of world societies are: {| class="wikitable" ! Africa [[File:African sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | [[Nama people|Nama (Hottentot)]]&nbsp;• [[!Kung people|Kung (San)]]&nbsp;• [[Shangaan people|Thonga]]&nbsp;• [[Lozi people|Lozi]]&nbsp;• [[Southern Mbundu people|Mbundu]]&nbsp;• [[Suku]]&nbsp;• [[Bemba people|Bemba]]&nbsp;• [[Nyakyusa people|Nyakyusa (Ngonde)]]&nbsp;• [[Hadza people|Hadza]]&nbsp;• [[Luguru people|Luguru]]&nbsp;• [[Kikuyu people|Kikuyu]]&nbsp;• [[Baganda|Ganda]]&nbsp;• [[Mbuti|Mbuti (Pygmies)]]&nbsp;• [[Mongo people|Nkundo (Mongo)]]&nbsp;• [[Banen]]&nbsp;• [[Tiv people|Tiv]]&nbsp;• [[Igbo people|Igbo]]&nbsp;• [[Fon people|Fon]]&nbsp;• [[Ashanti people|Ashanti (Twi)]]&nbsp;• [[Mende people|Mende]]&nbsp;• [[Bambara people|Bambara]]&nbsp;• [[Tallensi]]&nbsp;• [[Massa language|Massa]]&nbsp;• [[Azande]]&nbsp;• [[Otoro Nuba]]&nbsp;• [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]]&nbsp;• [[Mao languages|Mao]]&nbsp;• [[Maasai people|Maasai]] |- ! Circum-Mediterranean [[File:Circum-mediterannean sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | [[Wolof people|Wolof]]&nbsp;• [[Songhai people|Songhai]]&nbsp;• [[Wodaabe|Wodaabe Fulani]]&nbsp;• [[Hausa people|Hausa]]&nbsp;• [[Fur people|Fur]]&nbsp;• [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]]&nbsp;• [[Konso people|Konso]]&nbsp;• [[Somali people|Somali]]&nbsp;• [[Amhara people|Amhara]]&nbsp;• [[Bilen people|Bogo]]&nbsp;• [[Nubians|Kenuzi Nubian]]&nbsp;• [[Teda people|Teda]]&nbsp;• [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]]&nbsp;• [[Riffian people|Riffians]]&nbsp;• [[Fellah|Egyptians (Fellah)]]&nbsp;• [[Hebrews]]&nbsp;• [[Babylonia]]ns&nbsp;• [[Bedouin|Rwala Bedouin]]&nbsp;• [[Turkish people|Turks]]&nbsp;• [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg (Albanians)]]&nbsp;• [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]&nbsp;• [[Basque people|Basques]]&nbsp;• Irish&nbsp;• [[Sami people|Sami (Lapps)]]&nbsp;• [[Russians]]&nbsp;• [[Georgian people|Georgian (Iberian)]]&nbsp;•[[Abkhaz people|Abkhaz]]&nbsp; • [[Armenians]]&nbsp;• [[Kurdish people|Kurd]] |- ! East Eurasia [[File:East eurasian sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | [[Nenets people|Yurak (Samoyed)]]&nbsp;• [[Basseri]]&nbsp;• [[Punjabi people|West Punjabi]]&nbsp;• [[Gondi people|Gond]]&nbsp;• [[Toda people|Toda]]&nbsp;• [[Santals|Santal]]&nbsp;• [[Uttar Pradesh]]&nbsp;• [[Burusho people|Burusho]]&nbsp;• [[Kazakhs|Kazak]]&nbsp;• [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]]&nbsp;• [[Bengali people|Bengali]]&nbsp;• [[Khalkha|Khalka Mongols]]&nbsp; • [[Yi people|Lolo]]&nbsp;• [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]]&nbsp;• [[Garo (tribe)|Garo]]&nbsp;• [[Mara people|Lakher]]&nbsp;• [[Bamar|Burmese]]&nbsp;• [[List of ethnic groups in Laos|Lamet]]&nbsp;• [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]&nbsp;• [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|Rhade]]&nbsp;• [[Khmer people|Khmer]]&nbsp;• [[Thai people|Siamese]]&nbsp;• [[Semang]]&nbsp;• [[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]&nbsp;• [[Andamanese]]&nbsp;• [[Vedda people|Vedda]]&nbsp;• [[Malagasy people|Tanala]]&nbsp;• [[Negeri Sembilan]]&nbsp;• [[Atayal people|Atayal]]&nbsp;• [[Han Chinese|Chinese]]&nbsp;• [[Manchu]]&nbsp;• [[Koreans]]&nbsp;• Japanese&nbsp;• [[Ainu people|Ainu]]&nbsp;• [[Nivkhs|Gilyak]]&nbsp;• [[Yukaghir]] |- ! Insular Pacific [[File:Insular pacific.jpg|border|30px]] | [[Javanese people|Javanese (Miao)]]&nbsp;• [[Balinese people|Balinese]]&nbsp;• [[Iban people|Iban]]&nbsp;• [[Badjau]]&nbsp;• [[Toraja]]&nbsp;• [[Tobelo language|Tobelorese]]&nbsp;• [[Alor Archipelago|Alorese]]&nbsp;• [[Tiwi people|Tiwi]]&nbsp;• [[Arrernte people|Aranda]]&nbsp;• [[Orokaiva]]&nbsp;• [[Kimam]]&nbsp;• [[Ekari language|Kapauku]]&nbsp;• [[Kwoma]]&nbsp;• [[Manus Province|Manus]]&nbsp;• [[New Ireland Province|New Ireland]]&nbsp;• [[Trobriand Islands|Trobrianders]]&nbsp;• [[Bougainville Island|Siuai]]&nbsp;• [[Tikopia]]&nbsp;• [[Pentecost Island|Pentecost]]&nbsp;• [[Fijian people|Mbau Fijians]]&nbsp;• [[Ajië language|Ajie]]&nbsp;• [[Māori people|Maori]]&nbsp;• [[Culture of the Marquesas Islands|Marquesans]]&nbsp;• [[Samoans|Western Samoans]]&nbsp;• [[Culture of Kiribati|Gilbertese]]&nbsp;• [[Marshall Islands|Marshallese]]&nbsp;• [[Chuuk State|Trukese]]&nbsp;• [[Yap]]ese&nbsp;• [[Palauan language|Palauans]]&nbsp;• [[Ifugao]]&nbsp;• [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] |- ! North America [[File:North american sccs cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | [[Deg Hit'an|Ingalik]]&nbsp;• [[Aleut people|Aleut]]&nbsp;• [[Inuit|Copper Eskimo]]&nbsp;• [[Innu|Montagnais]]&nbsp;• [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]]&nbsp;• [[Saulteaux|Saulteaux (Ojibwa)]]&nbsp;• [[Slavey people|Slave]]&nbsp;• [[Kaska|Kaska (Nahane)]]&nbsp;• [[Eyak language|Eyak]]&nbsp;• [[Haida people|Haida]]&nbsp;• [[Nuxalk Nation|Bellacoola]]&nbsp;• [[Skokomish (tribe)|Twana]]&nbsp;• [[Yurok (tribe)|Yurok]]&nbsp;• [[Pomo people|Pomo]]&nbsp;• [[Yokut people|Yokut]]s&nbsp;• [[Paiute|Paiute (Northern)]]&nbsp;• [[Klamath people|Klamath]]&nbsp;• [[Ktunaxa|Kutenai]]&nbsp;• [[Gros Ventres]]&nbsp;• [[Hidatsa]]&nbsp;• [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]]&nbsp;• [[Omaha (tribe)|Omaha (Dhegiha)]]&nbsp;• [[Wyandot people|Huron]]&nbsp;• [[Muscogee (Creek)|Creek]]&nbsp;• [[Natchez people|Natchez]]&nbsp;• [[Comanche]]&nbsp;• [[Chiricahua]]&nbsp;• [[Zuni language|Zuni]]&nbsp;• [[Havasupai]]&nbsp;• [[Tohono O'odham|Papago]]&nbsp;• [[Huichol people|Huichol]]&nbsp;• [[Aztec]]&nbsp;• [[Popoluca]] |- ! South America [[File:South america SCCS cultures.jpg|border|30px]] | [[K'iche' people|Quiché]]&nbsp;• [[Miskito people|Miskito (Mosquito)]]&nbsp;• [[Bribri people|Bribri (Talamanca)]]&nbsp;• [[Guna people|Cuna]]&nbsp;• [[Wayuu|Goajiro]]&nbsp;• [[Culture of Haiti|Haitians]]&nbsp;• [[Calinago]]&nbsp;• [[Warao people|Warrau (Warao)]]&nbsp;• [[Ya̧nomamö|Yanomamo]]&nbsp;• [[Carib people|Carib]]&nbsp;• [[Saramaka|Saramacca]]&nbsp;• [[Munduruku]]&nbsp;• [[Tucano language|Cubeo (Tucano)]]&nbsp;• [[Cha'palaachi language|Cayapa]]&nbsp;• [[Jivaroan peoples|Jivaro]]&nbsp;• [[Amahuaca]]&nbsp;• [[Inca society|Inca]]&nbsp;• [[Aymara ethnic group|Aymara]]&nbsp;• [[Sirionó language|Siriono]]&nbsp;• [[Nambikwara|Nambicuara]]&nbsp;• [[Trumai people|Trumai]]&nbsp;• [[Gê peoples|Timbira]]&nbsp;• [[Tupi people|Tupinamba]]&nbsp;• [[Botocudo]]&nbsp;• [[Xavante|Shavante]]&nbsp;• [[Kaingang people|Aweikoma]]&nbsp;• [[Guarani people|Cayua (Guarani)]]&nbsp;• [[Lengua people|Lengua]]&nbsp;• [[Abipón people|Abipon]]&nbsp;• [[Mapuche]]&nbsp;• [[Tehuelche people|Tehuelche]]&nbsp;• [[Yaghan]] |} See also the [[List of indigenous peoples]]. ===Biological=== {{main|Biological anthropology}} [[File:Human remains.jpg|thumb|left|Forensic anthropologists can help identify skeletonized human remains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia, c. 1900–1910.]] Biological Anthropology and Physical Anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.<ref>University of Toronto. (n.d.). ''Research Subfields: Physical or Biological''. Retrieved 14 March 2012, from http://anthropology.utoronto.ca/about/research/physical-or-biological</ref> ===Archaeological=== {{main|Archaeology}} [[File:Iowa archaeology edgewater.JPG|thumb|Excavations at the 3800-year-old [[Edgewater Park Site]], [[Iowa]]]] [[Archaeology]] is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine these material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.<ref>Robbins, R. H. & Larkin, S. N. (2007). Cultural Anthropology: A problem based approach. Toronto, ON: Nelson Education Ltd.</ref> ===Linguistic=== {{main|Linguistic anthropology}} [[Linguistic anthropology]] (also called [[anthropological linguistics]]) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including [[sociolinguistics]], [[pragmatics]], [[cognitive linguistics]], [[semiotics]], [[discourse analysis]], and [[narrative]] analysis.<ref>Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) ''Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</ref> == Key topics by field: sociocultural== ===Art, media, music, dance and film=== {{Anthropology of art}} ==== Art ==== {{main|Anthropology of art}} One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts.<ref>Robert Layton. (1981) ''The Anthropology of Art''.</ref> To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' ''Primitive Art'', Claude Lévi-Strauss' ''The Way of the Masks'' (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'. ==== Media ==== {{main|Media anthropology}} [[File:Punu mask Gabon.JPG|thumb|upright|left|A Punu tribe mask. Gabon West Africa]] Anthropology of media (also '''anthropology of mass media''', '''media anthropology''') emphasizes [[ethnography|ethnographic studies]] as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include [[cyber anthropology]], a relatively new area of [[internet research]], as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, [[social movements]], or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, [[newspaper|the press]], [[new media]] and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.<ref>Deborah Spitulnik. (1993) 'Anthropology and Mass Media', ''Annual Review of Anthropology'', 22: 293-315</ref><ref>Lila Abu-Lughod. (1997) 'The Interpretation of Cultures after Television', ''Representations'', 59: 109-133</ref> ==== Music ==== {{main|Ethnomusicology}} Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire. ==== Visual ==== {{main|Visual anthropology}} Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of [[ethnography|ethnographic]] photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, [[new media]]. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with [[ethnographic film]], visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and [[reception theory|reception]] of [[anthropology of media|mass media]]. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology. === Economic, political economic, applied and development === {{Economic anthropology}} ==== Economic ==== {{main|Economic anthropology}} Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of Anthropology, [[Bronislaw Malinowski]], and his French compatriot, [[Marcel Mauss]], on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hann|first=Chris|title=Economic Anthropology|year=2011|publisher=Polity Press|location=Cambridge|pages=55–71|author2=Keith Hart}}</ref> Economic Anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective. ====Political economy==== {{main|Political economy in anthropology}} Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of [[Historical Materialism]] to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlins work on Hunter-gatherers as the 'original affluent society' did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system.<ref name="Roseberry 1988 161–85">{{cite journal|last=Roseberry|first=William|title=Political Economy|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|year=1988|volume=17|pages=161–85|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.001113}}</ref> More recently, these Political Economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world. ==== Applied ==== {{main|Applied anthropology}} Applied Anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a, "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kedia, Satish|first=and Willigen J. Van|title=Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application|year=2005|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn|pages=16, 150}}</ref> More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to [[Development anthropology]] (distinct from the more critical [[Anthropology of development]]). ====Development==== {{main|anthropology of development}} Anthropology of development tends to view development from a ''critical'' perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach involve asking why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short why does so much planned development fail? ===Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality=== {{Anthropology of kinship}} ==== Kinship ==== {{main|Kinship}} ''Kinship'' can refer both to ''the study of'' the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to ''the patterns of social relationships'' themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as '''descent''', '''descent groups''', '''lineages''', '''affines''', '''cognates''' and even '''fictive kinship.''' Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. ==== Feminist ==== {{main|Feminist anthropology}} Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology ([[archaeology|archeological]], [[biological anthropology|biological]], [[cultural anthropology|cultural]], [[linguistic anthropology|linguistic]]) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white European and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral' perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and regarded as less valid or important than knowledge from the [[western world]]. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct this systematic bias in mainstream [[feminist theory]]. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of [http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/2940.html birth anthropology] as a specialization. ===Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal=== {{Medical anthropology}} ==== Medical ==== {{main|Medical anthropology}} Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".<ref name=McElroy1996>{{Cite book |year=1996 |author=McElroy, A |chapter=Medical Anthropology |editor=D. Levinson & M. Ember |title=Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ethnomedicine/PDF/Medical%20Anthropologie.pdf |isbn= |ref=harv |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields:{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} <blockquote> * the development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care * the patient-physician relationship * the integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments * the interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole *the critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007) * the impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings </blockquote> Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as ''cultural psychiatry'' and ''transcultural psychiatry'' or ''ethnopsychiatry''. ==== Nutritional ==== {{main|Nutritional anthropology}} Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between [[economic systems]], [[nutrition|nutritional status]] and [[food security]], and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people. ==== Psychological ==== {{main|Psychological anthropology}} Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of [[cultural anthropology|cultural]] and [[psychology|mental processes]]. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and [[enculturation]] within a particular cultural group—with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories—shape processes of human [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[perception]], [[motivation]], and [[mental health]]. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.<ref>D'Andrade, R. G. (1995). The development of cognitive anthropology. New York, Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Schwartz, T., G. M. White, et al., Eds. (1992). New Directions in Psychological Anthropology. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.</ref> ==== Cognitive ==== {{main|Cognitive anthropology}} Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural [[innovation]], and transmission over time and space using the methods and [[theories]] of the [[cognitive sciences]] (especially [[experimental psychology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and [[interpretation (logic)|interpretation]] of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|D'Andrade|1995}}</ref> ==== Transpersonal ==== {{main|Transpersonal anthropology}} Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between [[altered states of consciousness]] and culture. As with [[transpersonal psychology]], the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and [[transpersonal experience]]. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues—for instance, the roles of [[Mythology|myth]], [[ritual]], [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], and [[Literature|texts]] in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences (Young and Goulet 1994). ===Political and legal=== {{Political anthropology}} ==== Political ==== {{main|Political anthropology}} Political anthropology concerns the structure of [[Form of government|political systems]], looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. First of all, anthropologists continued to study [[political organization]] and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Second of all, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and of course on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state is an early, famous example. ====Legal==== {{main|Legal anthropology}} Legal anthropology, also known as '''Anthropology of Law''' specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering".<ref>{{cite book | author = Greenhouse, Carol J. | title = Praying for Justice: Faith, Order, and Community in an American Town | location = Ithaca | publisher = Cornell UP | year = 1986 | page = 28}}</ref> Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as [[Human Rights]], [[Legal pluralism]], [[Islamaphobia]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Bowen|first=John R.|title=A New Anthropology of Islam|year=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge UK}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Political theologies: public religions in a post-secular world|year=2006|publisher=Fordham University Press|location=New York|editor=Hent de Vries and Lawrence E. Sullivan}}</ref> and Political Uprisings. ====Public==== {{main|Public anthropology}} Public Anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline - illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change" ([http://www.publicanthropology.org Borofsky 2004]). === Nature, science and technology=== {{Cyber anthropology}} ====Cyborg==== {{main|Cyborg anthropology}} Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the [[American Anthropological Association]]'s annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to [[science and technology studies|STS]] and the [[Society for the Social Studies of Science]].<ref>Dumit, Joseph. Davis-Floyd, Robbie. Cyborg Anthropology. Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women, 2001</ref> [[Donna Haraway]]'s 1985 ''[[Cyborg Manifesto]]'' could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings. ==== Digital ==== {{main|Digital anthropology}} Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and [[technology]] intersect. It is sometimes grouped with [[cultural anthropology|sociocultural anthropology]], and sometimes considered part of [[material culture]]. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.studyguide.aau.dk/programmes/postgraduate/53203/ | title=Techno-Anthropology course guide | publisher=Aalborg University | accessdate=14 March 2013}}</ref> digital ethnography, cyberanthropology,<ref>{{cite book | url=http://xirdalium.net/category/anthropology/cyberanthropology/ | title=Cyberanthropology | publisher=Peter Hammer Verlag Gmbh | date=August 2011 | accessdate=14 March 2013 | author=Knorr, Alexander | isbn=978-3-7795-0359-0}}</ref> and virtual anthropology.<ref>{{cite book | title=Virtual Anthropology: A guide to a new interdisciplinary field | publisher=Springer | author=Weber, Gerhard & Bookstein, Fred | year=2011 | isbn=978-3-211-48647-4}}</ref> ==== Ecological ==== {{main|Ecological anthropology}} Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of [[cultural adaptation]]s to environments".<ref name="Kottak">{{cite book|last=Kottak|first=Conrad Phillip|title=Anthropology : appreciating human diversity|year=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-811699-5|pages=579–584|edition=14th}}</ref> The sub-field is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their [[biophysical environment]]".<ref name="Townsend">{{cite book|last=Townsend|first=Patricia K.|title=Environmental anthropology : from pigs to policies|year=2009|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Prospect Heights, Ill.|isbn=978-1-57766-581-6|page=104|edition=2nd}}</ref> The focus of its research concerns "how cultural [[beliefs]] and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how people used elements of their culture to maintain their [[ecosystems]]."<ref name="Kottak"/> ====Environmental==== {{main|Environmental anthropology}} Environmental anthropology is a sub-specialty within the field of anthropology that takes an active role in examining the relationships between humans and their environment across space and time.<ref name="Kottak CP 1999">{{cite journal|last1=Kottak|first1=Conrad P.|jstor=683339|title=The New Ecological Anthropology|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=101|page=23|year=1999|doi=10.1525/aa.1999.101.1.23}}</ref> The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is [[political ecology]]. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, and more.<ref name="Pyke G 1984">{{cite journal|last1=Pyke|first1=G H|title=Optimal Foraging Theory: A Critical Review|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=15|page=523|year=1984|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.15.110184.002515}}</ref> The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.<ref name="Checker M 2005">{{cite book|author=Melissa Checker|title=Polluted promises: environmental racism and the search for justice in a southern town|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9GCcgMi40WkC|accessdate=3 April 2011|date=August 2005|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-1657-1}}</ref> ===Historical=== {{main|Ethnohistory}} Ethnohistory is the study of [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] cultures and [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] customs by examining [[History|historical records]]. It is also the study of the history of various [[ethnic group]]s that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.<ref name="Axtell1979">{{cite journal | last1 = Axtell | first1 = J. | year = 1979 | title = Ethnohistory: An Historian's Viewpoint | url = | journal = Ethnohistory | volume = 26 | issue = 1| pages = 3–4 | doi = 10.2307/481465 }}</ref> === Religion === {{Anthropology of religion}} {{main|Anthropology of religion}} The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between [[magical thinking]] and religion,<ref name="Cassirer1944">[[Ernst Cassirer|Cassirer, Ernst]] (1944) [http://books.google.com/books?id=pe9fWSv-iLsC&pg=PA102 ''An Essay On Man''], pt.II, ch.7 ''Myth and Religion'', pp.&nbsp;122–3. Quotation: {{quote|It seems to be one of the postulates of modern anthropology that there is complete continuity between magic and religion. [note 35: See, for instance, RR Marett, Faith, Hope, and Charity in Primitive Religion, the Gifford Lectures (Macmillan, 1932), Lecture II, pp. 21 ff.]&nbsp;... We have no empirical evidence at all that there ever was an age of magic that has been followed and superseded by an age of religion.}}</ref> and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human [[community]] that worships it.<ref name="Guthrie2000p225">Guthrie (2000) [http://books.google.es/books?id=wlNJQoZlGC4C&pg=PA225 pp.&nbsp;225–6]</ref> === Urban === {{main|Urban anthropology}} Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of [[urbanization]], poverty, and [[neoliberalism]]. [[Ulf Hannerz]] quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously [[agoraphobic]] lot, anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the [[Western World]] as well as in the "[[Third World]]" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "[[Anthropology#Focus on the "other cultures"|specialists in 'other cultures']]" closer to their homes.<ref>Hannerz, Ulf (1980). ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'', p.1</ref> There are two principle approaches in urban anthropology: by examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.<ref>Griffiths, Michael. B., Flemming Christiansen, and Malcolm Chapman. (2010) 'Chinese Consumers: The Romantic Reappraisal'. Ethnography, Sept 2010, 11, 331-357.</ref> == Key topics by field: archaeological and biological== {{main|Archaeological|Biological anthropology}} === Anthrozoology === {{main|Anthrozoology}} Anthrozoology (also called '''human–animal studies''' or '''HAS''') is the study of interaction between living things. It is a modern [[interdisciplinary]] and burgeoning field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, [[ethology]], medicine, [[psychology]], [[veterinary medicine]] and [[zoology]]. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions.<ref>Mills, Daniel S. [http://books.google.com/books?id=vrueZDfPUzoC&pg=PA28 "Anthrozoology"], ''The Encyclopedia of Applied Animal Behaviour and Welfare''. CABI 2010, pp. 28–30.</ref> It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy.<ref>DeMello, Margo. ''Teaching the Animal: Human–Animal Studies Across the Disciplines''. Lantern Books, 2010, p. xi. *Also see [http://www.animalsandsociety.org/content/index.php?pid=41 Animals & Society Institute], accessed 23 February 2011. *Note: the term should not be confused with "animal studies," which often refers to [[animal testing]].</ref> === Biocultural === {{main|Biocultural anthropology}} Biocultural anthropology is the [[scientific]] exploration of the relationships between [[human biology]] and culture. [[Biological anthropology|Physical anthropologists]] throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] perspective; that is, from the assumption that [[Typology (anthropology)|typological]] human biological differences lead to cultural differences.<ref name=Biocult_syn>{{cite book |last= Goodman |first=Alan H. |author2= Thomas L. Leatherman (eds.) |title=Building A New Biocultural Synthesis |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year= 1998 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=T8ZhpG_B_6MC |isbn= 978-0-472-06606-3}}</ref> After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology. === Evolutionary === {{main|Evolutionary anthropology}} Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the [[human evolution|evolution]] of [[human physiology]] and [[human behaviour]] and the relation between [[hominins]] and non-hominin [[primate]]s. Evolutionary anthropology is based in [[natural science]] and [[social science]], combining the [[Human development (biology)|human development]] with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a [[scientific]] approach, and brings together fields such as [[archaeology]], [[behavioral ecology]], [[psychology]], [[primatology]], and [[genetics]]. It is a dynamic and [[interdisciplinary]] field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present. === Forensic === {{main|Forensic anthropology}} Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of [[physical anthropology]] and human [[osteology]] in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of [[decomposition]]. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. === Palaeoanthropology === {{main|Palaeoanthropology}} Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of [[paleontology]] and [[physical anthropology]]. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in [[fossil]] [[Hominidae|hominid]] evidence such as [[Petrifaction|petrifacted]] bones and footprints. == Organizations == Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists is the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA), which was founded in 1903.<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/about/ AAAnet.org]</ref> Membership is made up of anthropologists from around the globe.<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/membership/upload/MAY-08-AAA.pdf AAAnet.org]</ref> In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the [[European Association of Social Anthropologists]] (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as [[geology]], [[physics]], [[zoology]], [[paleontology]], [[anatomy]], [[music theory]], [[art history]], [[sociology]] and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.<ref>Johanson, Donald and Kate Wong. ''Lucy's Legacy''. Kindle Books. 2007; Netti, Bruno. ''The Study of Ethnomusicology.'' University of Illinois Press, 2005. Chapter One</ref> List of major organizations {{maincat|Anthropology organizations}} {{Col-begin}} {{Col-1-of-3}} * [[American Anthropological Association]] * [[American Ethnological Society]] * [[AIBR. Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red|Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR]] * [[Moving Anthropology Student Network]] * [[Anthropological Society of London]] {{Col-2-of-3}} * [[Center for World Indigenous Studies]] * [[Ethnological Society of London]] * [[Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography]] * [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] * [[Network of Concerned Anthropologists]] {{Col-3-of-3}} * [[N. N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology]] * [http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/ Radical Anthropology Group] * [[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]] * [[Society for anthropological sciences]] * [[Society for Applied Anthropology]] * [[USC Center for Visual Anthropology]] {{Col-end}} ==Controversial ethical stances== Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.<ref name = "pbuteh">Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) ''Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter.'' Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.</ref><ref>van Breman, Jan, and Akitoshi Shimizu (1999) ''Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania''. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.</ref> Some commentators have contended: *That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derived some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).<ref name=Gellner>Gellner, Ernest (1992) ''Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion''. London/New York: Routledge. Pp: 26-29.</ref> *That ethnographic work was often [[Ahistoricism|ahistorical]], writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, ''Time and Its Other''). === Ethics of cultural relativism === At the same time, anthropologists urge, as part of their quest for scientific objectivity, [[cultural relativism]], which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology.<ref name="Ingold1994p331"/> This is the notion that particular cultures should not be judged by one culture's values or viewpoints, but that all cultures should be viewed as relative to each other. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.<ref>Levi-Strauss, Claude. ''The Savage Mind''. 1962; Womack, Mari. ''Being Human.'' 2001</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2012}} Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting [[genocide]], [[infanticide]], racism, [[mutilation]] including [[circumcision]] and [[subincision]], and [[torture]]. Topics like racism, slavery or human sacrifice, therefore, attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies <ref>Harris, Marvin. ''Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches''.</ref> to genes<ref>[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=209831&sectioncode=26 Timeshighereducation.co.uk]</ref> to [[acculturation]] have been proposed, not to mention theories of [[colonialism]] and many others as root causes of [[Man's inhumanity to man]]. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.<ref>{{cite web|title=Statement on "Race"|url=http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm|publisher=American Anthropological Association|date=May 1998}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/282/5389/654?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&titleabstract=DNA+challenges+race&searchid=QID_NOT_SET&FIRSTINDEX=; Sciencemag.org], Shanklin, Eugenia. 1994. Anthropology & Race; Faye V. Harrison. 1995. "The Persistent Power of 'Race' in the Cultural and Political Economy of Racism." Annual Review of Anthropology. 24:47-74. Allan Goodman. 1995. "The Problematics of "Race" in Contemporary Biological Anthropology." In Biological Anthropology: The State of the Science.; Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 1945-. "Melanin, Afrocentricity&nbsp;... ," 36(1993):33-58.; see Stanford's recent collection of overarching bibliographies on race and racism, [http://library.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/misc/race.html Library.stanford.edu]</ref> ===Ethical stance to military involvement=== Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the "Axis" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Office of War Information]]). At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies. Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little (although anthropologist Hugo Nutini was active in the stillborn [[Project Camelot]]).<ref>Horowitz, Lewis ed.(1967) The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot.</ref> Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA). Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[State (polity)|state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments&nbsp;... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0907/p01s08-wosc.htm Christian Science Monitor]</ref> The [[Christian Science Monitor]] reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|in Afghanistan]], under the ''[[Human Terrain System]]'' (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the [[US military in Iraq]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Human Terrain System: A CORDS for the 21st Century|url=http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume4/december_2006/12_06_2.html|archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20140121225645/http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume4/december_2006/12_06_2.html|archivedate=21 January 2014}}</ref> In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, "When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of "anthropology" within DoD."<ref>[http://blog.aaanet.org/2009/12/08/aaa-commission-releases-final-report-on-army-human-terrain-system/ AAA Commission Releases Final Report on Army Human Terrain System « American Anthropological Association<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==Post–World War II developments== Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology. ===Basic trends=== There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more [[Holism|holistic]] account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.<ref name="Hylland Eriksen 2004 p. 79"/> The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.<ref>Rosaldo, Renato. ''Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis''. Beacon Press. 1993; Inda, John Xavier and Renato Rosaldo. ''The Anthropology of Globalization. Wiley-Blackwell. 2007''</ref> Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation<ref>Robert Jurmain, Lynn Kilgore, Wenda Trevathan, and Russell L. Ciochon. ''Introduction to Physical Anthropology. 11th Edition. Wadsworth. 2007, chapters I, III and IV.''; Wompack, Mari. ''Being Human''. Prentice Hall. 2001, pp.&nbsp;11–20.</ref> and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures).<ref>Brown, Donald. ''Human Universals''. McGraw Hill. 1991; Roughley, Neil. ''Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transciplinary Perspectives''. Walter de Gruyter Publishing. 2000</ref> They use many different methods of study, but modern population [[genetics]], [[participant observation]] and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field," which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the [[Paleolithic]] and the [[Neolithic]], of particular use in archaeology.{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as [[Olduwan]] or [[Mousterian]] or [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to [[Culture regions]] as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of [[comparative method]], a central part of their science. ===Commonalities between fields=== Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see [[History of Anthropology]]), including but not limited to [[Fossil collecting|fossil-hunting]], [[Exploration|exploring]], documentary film-making, [[paleontology]], [[primatology]], antiquity dealings and curatorship, [[philology]], [[etymology]], [[genetics]], regional analysis, [[ethnology]], history, [[philosophy]], and [[religious studies]],<ref>Erickson, Paul A. and Liam D. Murphy. ''A History of Anthropological Theory''. Broadview Press. 2003. p.&nbsp;11–12</ref><ref>George Stocking, "Paradigmatic Traditions in the History of Anthropology." In George Stocking, The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992):342-361.</ref> it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.<ref>Leaf, Murray. ''Man, Mind and Science: A History of Anthropology.'' Columbia University Press. 1979</ref> Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies).<ref>See the many essays relating to this in Prem Poddar and David Johnson, Historical Companion to Postcolonial Thought in English, Edinburgh University Press, 2004. See also Prem Poddar et al., Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures--Continental Europe and its Empires, Edinburgh University Press, 2008</ref> For example, the classic of [[urban anthropology]], [[Ulf Hannerz]] in the introduction to his seminal ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'' mentions that the "[[Third World]]" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s.<ref>[[Ulf Hannerz]] (1980) "Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology", ISBN 0-231-08376-9, p. 1</ref> Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home".<ref name="Lewis">Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294(199809)2%3A100%3A3%3C716%3ATMOAAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences]'' ''[[American Anthropologist]]'' "100:" 716-731</ref> It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and [[Sociology]], on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.<ref>[[Jack Goody]] (2007) ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jo1UVi48KywC The Theft of History]'' Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-87069-0</ref> In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to [[sociologist]]s, but this is increasingly changing,<ref>*{{Cite journal | last1 = Abélès | first1 = Marc | year = | title = How the Anthropology of France Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing New Directions in the Field | journal = [[Cultural Anthropology]] | volume = 1999 | issue = | page = 407 | jstor = 08867356 | ref = harv }}</ref> starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like ''[[Terrain (journal)|Terrain]]'' ("fieldwork"), and developing with the center founded by [[Marc Augé]] (''[[École des hautes études en sciences sociales|Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains]]'', the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.<ref>Fischer, Michael M. J. ''Emergent Forms of Life and the Anthropological Voice''. Duke University Press, 2003.</ref> ==See also== {{Main|Outline of anthropology}} {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} *[[Anthropological Index Online]] (AIO) *[[Anthropological science fiction]] *[[Ethnology]] *[[Ethology]] *[[Folklore]] *[[Human ethology]] *[[Human evolution]] *[[Human Relations Area Files]] *[[Intangible Cultural Heritage]] {{col-3}} *[[Memetics]] *[[Prehistoric medicine]] *[[Qualitative research]] *[[Sociology]] *[[Theological anthropology]], a sub-field of theology *[[Philosophical anthropology]], a sub-field of philosophy *Anthropology in [[Tinbergen's four questions]] {{col-3}} {{Wikipedia books}} {{col-end}} ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} <div class="references-small"></div> ==Further reading== {{main|List of important publications in anthropology}} ===Dictionaries and encyclopedias=== *Barnard, Alan and Spencer, Jonathan eds. (2010) ''The Routledge Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology'' London: Routledge *Barfield, Thomas (1997). ''The dictionary of anthropology.'' Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing. * Jackson, John L. (2013) ''Oxford Bibliographies: Anthropology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press *Levinson, David and Melvin Ember. eds. (1996) ''Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology''. (4 vols.) New York: Henry Holt. *Rapport, Nigel and Overing, Joanna (2007) ''Social and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts.'' New York: Routledge ===Fieldnotes and memoirs=== *Barley, Nigel (1983) ''The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut''. London: British Museum Publications. *Geertz, Clifford (1995) ''After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. *Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967) ''Tristes tropiques''. Translated from the French by John Russell. New York: Atheneum. *Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) ''A diary in the strict sense of the term''. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World. *Mead, Margaret (1972) '' Blackberry winter: my earlier years''. New York: William Marrow. *Mead, Margaret, (1977) ''Letters from the field, 1925–1975''. New York: Harper & Row. *Rabinow, Paul. (1977) ''Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco''. ===Histories=== *Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) ''Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter''. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. *Barth, Fredrik, Andre Gingrich, Robert Parkin, ''One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. *D'Andrade, R. "The Sad Story of Anthropology: 1950–1999." In E. L. Cerroni-Long, ed. ''Anthropological Theory in North America''. Westport: Berin & Garvey 1999. [http://www.anthro.ucsd.edu/~rdandrad/Sadstory Anthro.ucsd.edu] *Darnell, Regna. (2001) ''Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology''. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. *Harris, Marvin. (2001[1968]) ''The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture''. AltaMira Press. Walnut Creek, CA. *Kehoe, Alice B. (1998) ''The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology''. *{{cite doi|10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.716}} *Lewis, Herbert S. (2004) "Imagining Anthropology's History." ''Reviews in Anthropology'', v. 33. *Lewis, Herbert S. (2005) "Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History". In R. Darnell & F.W. Gleach, eds. ''Histories of Anthropology Annual'', Vol. I. *Pels, Peter & Oscar Salemink, eds. (2000) ''Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology''. *Price, David. (2004) ''Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists''. *Sera-Shriar, Efram. (2013) ''The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871''. Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 18. London and Vermont: Pickering and Chatto *Stocking, George, Jr. (1968) ''Race, Culture and Evolution''. New York: Free Press. *Trencher, Susan. (2000) ''Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960–1980''. * Gisi, Lucas Marco. (2007) ''Einbildungskraft und Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert'', Berlin, New York: de Gruyter. *Wolf, Eric. (1982) ''Europe and the People Without History''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: California University Press. ===Textbooks and key theoretical works=== *Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) ''Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography''. Berkeley: University of California Press. *Geertz, Clifford (1973) ''The Interpretation of Cultures''. New York: Basic Books. *Harris, Marvin (1997) ''Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology (7th Edition)''. Boston: Allyn & Bacon *Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) ''Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. *Shweder, Richard A., and Robert A. LeVine, eds. (1984) ''Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ==External links== {{WVS}} {{wikiquote|Anthropology}} {{Library resources box}} *[http://www.germananthropology.com/ Webpage "History of German Anthropology/Ethnology 1945/49-1990"] *[http://www.aaanet.org/ American Anthropological Association Homepage] Home page of largest professional organization of anthropologists *[http://www.easaonline.org/ European Association of Social Anthropologists] *[http://www.physanth.org/ American Association of Physical Anthropologists] *[http://www.aas.asn.au/ Australian Anthropological Society] *[http://www.aibr.org/ Iberoamerican Association of Anthropology AIBR] *[http://www.easaonline.org/ European Association of Social Anthropologists] *[http://hraf.yale.edu Human Relations Area Files], Has published a database containing information on over 400 Cultures since the 1940s *[http://www.movinganthropology.net/ Moving Anthropology Student Network - International Association of Social Anthropology Students] *[http://www.isita-org.com/ Italian Institute of Anthropology] *[http://www.practicinganthropology.org/ National Association for the Practice of Anthropology] *[http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/ Radical Anthropology Group] *[http://www.therai.org.uk/ The Royal Anthropological Institute Homepage]—The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI) *[http://www.sfaa.net/ The Society for Applied Anthropology] *[http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/anthro Annual Review of Anthropology] *[http://anthro.amnh.org/ Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History] Online collections database with detailed description and digital images for over 160,000 ethnographic artifacts. *[http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/ National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution] Collects and preserves historical and contemporary anthropological materials that document the world's cultures and the history of anthropology *[http://www.aio.anthropology.org.uk/ The Anthropological Index Online] Online bibliographic database. *[https://www.researchgate.net/science/26_Anthropology Anthropology Researcher and Groups] *[http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/anthropology/ Anthropology at MIT OCW] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zeJXyrVDHrw&feature=youtu.be at video Anthropology ?] *[http://congdongnhanhoc.edu.vn/index.php/gioi-thieu at Cong dong Nhan Hoc_VietNam] *[http://anthdep.edu.vn/ at Nhan Hoc Viet Nam] {{Social sciences}} {{Ethnicity}} [[Category:Anthropology| ]] [[Category:Social sciences]] ikcju7eczcfgpwj2hvozqx1oo7y2ere wikitext text/x-wiki 0 572 601505891 601503164 2014-03-27T13:58:25Z Katieh5584 403690 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.185.103.240|204.185.103.240]] ([[User talk:204.185.103.240|talk]]) to last revision by ClueBot NG ([[WP:HG|HG]]) {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox Occupation | name= Agronomist | image= [[Image:Cropscientist.jpg|frameless]] | caption= An agronomist measures and records corn growth and other processes. | official_names= agronomist<br/>agricultural scientist<br/>crop scientist <!------------Details-------------------> | type= [[profession]] | activity_sector= agriculture, [[agronomy]] | competencies= technical knowledge, sense of analysis | employment_field= [[food industry]], science, [[research and development]] | related_occupation= see [[#Fields or related disciplines|related disciplines]] | average_salary= }} {{Agriculture}} '''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and [[social sciences]] that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. ([[veterinary medicine|Veterinary science]], but not [[animal science]], is often excluded from the definition.) ==Agriculture and agricultural science== The two terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: *Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. *[[Agronomy]] is [[research and development]] related to studying and improving plant-based agriculture. Agricultural sciences include research and development on: * Production techniques (e.g., [[irrigation]] management, recommended [[nitrogen]] inputs) * Improving [[agricultural productivity]] in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of [[drought]]-resistant crops and animals, development of new [[pesticide]]s, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro [[cell culture]] techniques) * Minimizing the effects of pests ([[weeds]], [[insects]], [[pathogens]], [[nematodes]]) on crop or animal production systems. * Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of [[dairy product]]s) * Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., [[soils retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[waste management]], [[bioremediation]]) * [[Theoretical production ecology]], relating to crop production modeling * Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed [[subsistence agriculture]], which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of [[industrial agriculture]], which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems. * Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the USA and the EU. == Fertilizer == One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment ==Agricultural science: a local science== With the exception of [[theoretical production ecology|theoretical agronomy]], research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of [[ecoregions]], because it is closely linked to soil properties and [[climate]], which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, [[soil]] characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interaction with nature. ==History of agricultural science== {{Main|History of agricultural science}} Agricultural science began with [[Gregor Mendel]]'s genetic work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the [[chemical fertilizer]] outputs of [[plant physiology|plant physiological]] understanding in 18th-century Germany.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the [[Hatch Act of 1887|Hatch Act]] of 1887, which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The [[Smith-Hughes Act]] of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built.<ref>Hillison J. (1996). [http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jae/pdf/vol37/37-04-08.pdf The Origins of Agriscience: Or Where Did All That Scientific Agriculture Come From?]. ''Journal of Agricultural Education''.</ref> After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.<ref name=ScienceForAg>Huffman WE, Evenson RE. (2006). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZWcolrGftT0C Science for Agriculture]''. [[Blackwell Publishing]].</ref>{{rp|xxi}} Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and [[developing countries]], often referred to as the [[Green Revolution]], was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide|phytosanitary product]]s. As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently [[intensive agriculture]], industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as [[integrated pest management]], [[waste management|waste treatment]] technologies, [[landscape architecture]], [[genomics]], and [[agricultural philosophy]] fields that include references to [[food industry|food production]] as something essentially different from non-essential economic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science. New technologies, such as [[biotechnology]] and [[computer science]] (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including [[genetic engineering]], [[agrophysics]], improved [[statistics|statistical analysis]], and [[precision farming]]. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of [[history of agriculture|traditional agriculture]], including interaction of [[Religion and Agriculture|religion and agriculture]], and the non-material components of agricultural production systems. ===Prominent agricultural scientists=== [[File:Norman Borlaug.jpg|thumb|200px|Norman Borlaug, father of the [[Green Revolution]].]] * [[Robert Bakewell (farmer)|Robert Bakewell]] * [[Norman Borlaug]] * [[Luther Burbank]] * [[George Washington Carver]] * [[Sir Albert Howard]] * [[Kailas Nath Kaul]] * [[Justus von Liebig]] * [[Jay Lush]] * [[Gregor Mendel]] * [[Louis Pasteur]] * [[M. S. Swaminathan]] * [[Jethro Tull (agriculturist)|Jethro Tull]] * [[Eli Whitney, Jr.|Eli Whitney]] * [[Sewall Wright]] ==Agricultural science and agriculture crisis== Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing [[biosafety]] problems that may affect human health and the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. This requires promoting good management of [[natural resources]] and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system. Economic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as avian influenza, [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] and issues such as the use of [[genetically modified organism]]s) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate. ==Fields or related disciplines== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} * [[Agricultural diversification]] * [[Agricultural economics]] * [[Agricultural engineering]] * [[Agricultural geography]] * [[Agricultural philosophy]] * [[Agricultural marketing]] * [[Agrophysics]] * [[Animal science]] ** [[Animal breeding]] ** [[Animal nutrition]] * [[Agronomy]] ** [[Botany]] ** [[Theoretical production ecology]] ** [[Horticulture]] ** [[Plant breeding]] ** [[fertilizer|Plant fertilization]] {{Col-break}} * [[Aquaculture]] * [[Biological engineering]] ** [[Genetic engineering]] * [[Nematology]] * [[Microbiology]] ** [[Plant pathology]] * [[Environmental science]] * [[Entomology]] * [[Food science]] ** [[Human nutrition]] * [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]] * [[Soil science]] ** [[Agrology]] * [[Waste management]] * [[Weed]] science {{Col-end}} ==See also== * [[Agriculture ministry]] *[[Agricultural sciences basic topics]] *[[Agroecology]] *[[American Society of Agronomy]] *[[Genomics of domestication]] *[[List of agriculture topics]] *[[History of agricultural science]] *[[Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences]] *[[International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development]] *[[International Food Policy Research Institute]], [[IFPRI]] *[[Research Institute of Crop Production]] (RICP) (in the Czech Republic) *[[University of Agricultural Sciences]] *[[National FFA Organization]] ==Further reading== *[http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title_pages/9358.html Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries] Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Report<ref name="Brief">[http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agricultural-research-livelihoods-and-poverty Agricultural research, livelihoods, and poverty | International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> *Claude Bourguignon, ''Regenerating the Soil: From Agronomy to Agrology'', Other India Press, 2005 *Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, ''Computer les kilocalories'', Cérès, n. 59, sept-oct. 1977 *Russell E. Walter, ''Soil conditions and plant growth'', Longman group, London, New York 1973 *Salamini Francesco, Oezkan Hakan, Brandolini Andrea, Schaefer-Pregl Ralf, Martin William, ''Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East'', in Nature, vol. 3, ju. 2002 *Saltini Antonio, ''Storia delle scienze agrarie'', 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, ISBN 88-206-2412-5, ISBN 88-206-2413-3, ISBN 88-206-2414-1, ISBN 88-206-2415-X *Vavilov Nicolai I. (Starr Chester K. editor), ''The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings'', in Chronica botanica, 13: 1-6, Waltham, Mass., 1949–50 *Vavilov Nicolai I., ''World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax,'' Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960 *Winogradsky Serge, ''Microbiologie du sol. Problèmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches,'' Masson & c.ie, Paris 1949 ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.cgiar.org Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)] * [http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/main.htm Agricultural Research Service] * [http://www.icar.org.in Indian Council of Agricultural Research] * [http://www.iita.org International Institute of Tropical Agriculture] * [http://www.ilri.org International Livestock Research Institute] * [http://nal.usda.gov/ The National Agricultural Library (NAL)] - The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world. * [https://www.crops.org/ Crop Science Society of America] * [https://www.agronomy.org/ American Society of Agronomy] * [https://www.soils.org/ Soil Science Society of America] * [https://www.researchgate.net/science/748_Agricultural_science Agricultural Science Researchers, Jobs and Discussions] *[http://www.fisaonline.de/index.php?act=home&lang=en Information System for Agriculture and Food Research] *[http://www.sdaglabs.com/ South Dakota Agricultural Laboratories] *[http://eppws.nmsu.edu/ NMSU Department of Entomology Plant Pathology and Weed Science] {{Interwiki conflict}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Agricultural Science}} [[Category:Agronomy]] [[be-x-old:Аграномія]] [[bg:Аграрни науки]] [[da:Agronomi]] [[es:Agronomía]] [[fr:Agronomie]] [[it:Agronomia]] [[he:אגרונומיה]] [[nl:Landbouwkunde]] [[ja:農学]] [[pl:Agronomia]] [[fi:Maataloustiede]] [[sv:Lantbruksvetenskap]] [[th:เกษตรศาสตร์]] km0lx21gsfdzpgwizck4thlahw9fiy8 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 573 move=:edit= 601831974 601649536 2014-03-29T17:01:58Z 98.170.228.108 Added Category {{Redirect|Alchemist|other uses|Alchemist (disambiguation)|and|Alchemy (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:Fotothek df tg 0006097 Theosophie ^ Alchemie.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Emerald Tablet]], a key text of Western Alchemy, in a 17th-century edition]] '''Alchemy''' is an influential philosophical tradition whose practitioners have, from antiquity, claimed it to be the precursor to profound powers. The defining objectives of alchemy are varied, but historically have typically included one or more of the following goals: the creation of the fabled [[philosopher's stone]]; the ability to transform [[base metal]]s into the [[noble metal]]s (gold or silver); and development of an [[elixir of life]], which would confer youth and longevity. Alchemy differs significantly from modern science in its inclusion of [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] principles and practices related to [[mythology]], [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[religion]], and [[spirituality]]. It is recognized as a [[protoscience]] that contributed to the development of modern [[chemistry]] and [[medicine]]. Alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. ==Overview== The ostensible goals of alchemy are often given as the [[wiktionary:transmutation|transmutation]] of common metals into gold (known as [[chrysopoeia]]), the creation of a [[panacea (medicine)|panacea]], and the discovery of a [[Alkahest|universal solvent]].<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alchemy Alchemy at Dictionary.com].</ref> However, these only highlight certain aspects of alchemy. [[List of alchemists|Alchemist]]s have historically rewritten and evolved their explanation of alchemy, so that it is difficult to define it simply.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|pp=7,11}}</ref> H.J. Sheppard gives the following as a comprehensive summary: {{quotation|Alchemy is the art of liberating parts of the Cosmos from temporal existence and achieving perfection which, for metals is gold, and for man, longevity, then immortality and, finally, redemption. Material perfection was sought through the action of a preparation (Philosopher's Stone for metals; Elixir of Life for humans), while spiritual ennoblement resulted from some form of inner revelation or other enlightenment (Gnosis, for example, in Hellenistic and western practices).<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|pp=11}}</ref>}} Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its [[exoteric]] practical applications and its [[esoteric]] aspects. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences who have examined the subject in terms of protochemistry, medicine, and [[charlatanism]]. The latter interests psychologists, spiritual and new age communities, hermetic philosophers, and historians of esotericism.<ref>For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see {{Harvnb|Linden|1996|pp=6–36}}</ref> The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite the modern split, numerous sources stress an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy. Holmyard, when writing on exoteric aspects, states that they cannot be properly appreciated if the esoteric is not always kept in mind.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=16}}</ref> The prototype for this model can be found in [[Bolus of Mendes|Bolos of Mendes]]' 3rd-century BCE work, ''Physika kai Mystika'' ("On Physical and Mystical Matters").<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.96"/> [[Marie-Louise von Franz]] tells us the double approach of Western alchemy was set from the start, when Greek philosophy was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology. The technological, operative approach, which she calls [[extravert]]ed, and the mystic, contemplative, psychological one, which she calls [[introvert]]ed are not mutually exclusive, but complementary instead, as meditation requires practice in the real world, and conversely.<ref name="FRAALC97">{{Harvnb|von Franz|1997|p={{page needed|date=December 2011}}}}</ref> ===Relation to the science of chemistry=== {{Main|History of chemistry}} [[File:Alchemists Workshop detail from Title Page AQ24 (3).tif|thumb|left|425px|Scientific apparatus in the alchemist's workshop, 1580]] Practical applications of alchemy produced a wide range of contributions to medicine and the physical sciences. The alchemist [[Robert Boyle]]<ref>Arthur Greenburg. ''From alchemy to chemistry in picture and story.''</ref> is credited as being the father of chemistry. Paracelsian [[iatrochemistry]] emphasized the medicinal application of alchemy (continued in plant alchemy, or [[spagyric]]).<ref>H. Stanley Redgrove. ''Alchemy Ancient and Modern'' p.60</ref> Studies of alchemy also influenced [[Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton's]] theory of gravity.<ref>Mitch Stokes. ''Isaac Newton'' p. 57</ref> Academic historical research supports that the alchemists were searching for a material substance using physical methods.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=397–8,400}}</ref> It is a popular belief that alchemists made contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day—ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of gunpowder, ink, dyes, paints, cosmetics, [[Tanning|leather tanning]], ceramics, glass manufacture, preparation of extracts, liquors, and so on (it seems that the preparation of ''[[aqua vitae]]'', the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists). Alchemists contributed [[distillation]] to Western Europe. The attempts of alchemists to arrange information on substances, so as to clarify and anticipate the products of their chemical reactions, resulted in early conceptions of chemical elements and the first rudimentary [[periodic table]]s. They learned how to extract metals from ores, and how to compose many types of inorganic acids and bases. During the 17th century, practical alchemy started to disappear in favor of its younger offshoot chemistry,<ref name="William R Newman 1998 pp. 32–65">William R Newman & Lawrence M Principe (1998) "The Etymological Origins of an Historiographic Mistake" in ''Early Science and Medicine'', Vol. 3, No. 1 pp. 32–65</ref> as it was renamed by [[Robert Boyle]], the "father of modern chemistry".<ref name="Deem, Rich 2005">{{cite web |author=Deem, Rich |title=The Religious Affiliation of Robert Boyle the father of modern chemistry. From: Famous Scientists Who Believed in God |year=2005 |publisher=adherents.com |url=http://www.adherents.com/people/pb/Robert_Boyle.html |accessdate=17 April 2009 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090326003343/http://www.adherents.com/people/pb/Robert_Boyle.html| archivedate= 26 March 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> In his book, ''The Skeptical Chymist'', Boyle attacked [[Paracelsus]] and the [[natural philosophy]] of [[Aristotle]], which was taught at universities. However, Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the [[Scholasticism|scholastic sciences]] and to alchemy, in theory, practice and doctrine.<ref name="More 61–76">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.2307/2707281 | last = More | first = Louis Trenchard | title = Boyle as Alchemist | journal = Journal of the History of Ideas | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 61–76 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | date = January 1941 | accessdate = 30 March 2010 | jstor = 2707281 }}</ref> The decline of alchemy continued in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework within a new view of the universe based on rational [[materialism]]. ===Relation to Hermeticism=== In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] practitioners, the heart of alchemy is spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.96">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.96</ref> This approach is often termed 'spiritual', 'esoteric', or 'internal' alchemy. Early alchemists, such as [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] (c. AD 300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry.'' The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34.</ref> This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for [[spirit|spiritual entities]], spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true [[spiritual philosophy]]. Practitioners and patrons such as [[Melchior Cibinensis]] and [[Pope Innocent VIII]] existed within the ranks of the church, while [[Martin Luther]] applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.<ref>Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' Princeton University Press. p.4</ref> Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was a symbol: {{quote|<poem>Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver? A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.<ref>Théodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his ''L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects.'' 1766. (A.E. Waite translation as found in ''The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.'')</ref></poem>}} During the renaissance, alchemy broke into more distinct schools placing spiritual alchemists in high contrast with those working with literal metals and chemicals.<ref name="Raphael Patai p.3">Raphael Patai. ''The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book.'' Princeton University Press. p.3</ref> While most spiritual alchemists also incorporate elements of exotericism, examples of a purely spiritual alchemy can be traced back as far as the 16th century, when [[Jacob Boehme]] used alchemical terminology in strictly mystical writings.<ref>Daniel Merkur. ''Gnosis: an esoteric tradition of mystical visions and unions.'' State University of New York Press. p.75</ref> Another example can be found in the work of [[Heinrich Khunrath]] (1560–1605) who viewed the process of transmutation as occurring within the alchemist's soul.<ref name="Raphael Patai p.3"/> The recent work of L. M. Principe and [[William R. Newman]], seeks to reject the 'spiritual interpretation' of alchemy, especially as applied to medieval, 16th- and 17th-century alchemy, stating it arose as a product of the Victorian occult revival.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37">{{Harvnb|Newman|Principe|2002|p=37}}</ref> There is evidence to support that some classical alchemical sources were adulterated during this time to give greater weight to the spiritual aspects of alchemy.<ref name="Newtonianism' p211">''Newton and Newtonianism'' by James E. Force, Sarah Hutton, '''p211'''</ref><ref name="Principe 2001 395–6">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=395–6}}</ref> Despite this, other scholars such as Calian and Tilton reject this view as entirely historically inaccurate, drawing examples of historical spiritual alchemy from Boehme, Isaac Newton, and [[Michael Maier]].<ref>{{harvnb|Calian|2010|p={{page needed|date=December 2011}}}}</ref> ==Etymology== {{Main|Chemistry (etymology)}} The word alchemy may derive from the [[Old French]] ''alquimie'', which is from the [[Medieval Latin]] ''alchimia'', and which is in turn from the [[Arabic]] ''al-kimia'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|الكيمياء}}). This term itself is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] ''chemeia'' (χημεία) or ''chemia'' (χημία)<ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0017630#DWS-M_EN_GB-037342 alchemy], Oxford Dictionaries</ref> with the addition of the Arabic [[definite article]] ''[[al-]]'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|الـ}}).<ref name=OED>{{OED|alchemy}} Or see {{OEtymD|alchemy|accessdate=07 April 2010}}.</ref> The ancient Greek word may have been derived from<ref>See, for example, the etymology for χημεία in {{Cite book| edition = Eighth edition, revised throughout| publisher = Clarendon Press| last = Liddell| first = Henry George|author2=Robert Scott| title = A Greek-English Lexicon| location = Oxford| year = 1901| isbn = 0-19-910205-8}}</ref> a version of the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name for Egypt, which was itself based on the Ancient Egyptian word ''kēme'' (hieroglyphic Khmi, ''black earth'', as opposed to desert sand).<ref name=OED/> The word could also have originally derived from the Greek ''chumeia'' (χυμεία) meaning "mixture" and referring to [[pharmaceutical chemistry]].<ref>See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for χυμεία in {{Cite book| edition = A new edition, revised and augmented throughout| publisher = Clarendon Press| last = Liddell| first = Henry George| coauthors = Robert Scott, Henry Stuart Jones| title = A Greek-English Lexicon| location = Oxford| year = 1940|url = http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=xumeia&la=greek#lexicon| isbn = 0-19-910205-8}}</ref> With the later rise of alchemy in Alexandria, the word may have derived from Χημία, and thus became spelled as χημεία, and the original meaning forgotten.<ref>The original source for this analysis is the article on pp.&nbsp;81&ndash;85 of {{Cite book| publisher = F. Duemmler| last = Mahn| first = Carl August Friedrich| title = Etymologische untersuchungen auf dem gebiete der romanischen sprachen| year = 1855| url = http://books.google.com/?id=-BMLAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> Its etymology is still open to question. ==History== [[File:Alchemy of Happiness.png|thumb|[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat]] (''The Alchemy of Happiness'') &ndash; a text on Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by [[Al-Ghazali|Al-Ghazālī]] (1058–1111).]] Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; [[Rasayana|Indian alchemy]], centered around the [[Indian subcontinent]]; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and whose center has shifted over the millennia from [[Egypt (Roman province)|Greco-Roman Egypt]], to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], and finally [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]] and Indian alchemy with the [[Indian religions|Dharmic faiths]], whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various [[Western religion]]s. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. ===Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt=== [[File:Zosimosapparat.jpg|thumb|left|300px| Ambix, cucurbit and retort of Zosimos, from [[Marcelin Berthelot]], ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'' (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888)]] The start of European alchemy may generally be traced to [[Hellenistic Egypt]]. The [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] city of [[Alexandria]] was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.<ref>''New Scientist'', 24–31 December 1987</ref> Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and [[Greeks|Greek]] philosophy, each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] wrote the oldest known books on alchemy {{citation needed|date=February 2013}} while [[Mary the Jewess]] is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and lived in Egypt under Roman rule. '''Mythology''' – Zosimos of Panopolis claimed that alchemy dated back to pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class; there is little or no evidence for such a claim though.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garfinkel|first=Harold|title=Ethnomethodological Studies of Work|publisher=Routledge &Kegan Paul|year=1986|pages=127|isbn=0-415-11965-0}}</ref> Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.<ref>Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213</ref> These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], [[Jason]], and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is [[Hermes Trismegistus]] (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]] and his Greek counterpart [[Hermes]]. Hermes and his [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to [[Clement of Alexandria]], he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.<ref>[[s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume II/CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA/The Stromata, or Miscellanies/Book VI/Chapter IV.|Clement, ''Stromata'', vi. 4.]]</ref> The ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. '''Technology''' – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of [[metallurgy]], extending back to 3500 BCE.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|p=12}}</ref> Many writings were lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books<ref>{{cite book|last=Partington|first=James Riddick|title=A Short History of Chemistry|year=1989|pages=20|isbn=0-486-65977-1|publisher=Dover Publications|location=New York}}</ref> after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292 CE). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the [[Stockholm papyrus]] and the [[Leyden papyrus X]]. Dating from 300 to 500 CE, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and the manufacture of imitation gold and silver.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=46}}</ref> These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of [[Bolus of Mendes]] (or [[Pseudo-Democritus]]) which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the [[Classical elements]].<ref name="Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13">''A History of Chemistry'', Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, ''Harvard University Press'', 1996, '''p13'''</ref> Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|1996|p=14}}</ref> '''Philosophy''' – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character.<ref name="Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent 1996, p13"/> An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Water (classical element)|water]], and [[Fire (classical element)|fire]]. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.<ref>{{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | location=London | publisher=Muller | year=1970 | isbn= 0-389-01006-5 | page=16 }}</ref> The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=66 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. [[Lactantius]] believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354–430 CE) later affirmed this, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry.<ref>Fanning, Philip Ashley. ''Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution.'' 2009. p.6</ref> Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and [[Ostanes]]. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After 400 CE, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.<ref>F. Sherwood Taylor. ''Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry.'' p.26.</ref> By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.<ref>Allen G. Debus. ''Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix.'' p. 36</ref> It was at that time that [[Khalid Ibn Yazid]] sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.<ref>Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. ''Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world.'' p. 284–285</ref> ===Alchemy in the Islamic world=== {{Main|Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam}} [[File:Jabir ibn Hayyan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber), considered the "father of [[chemistry]]", introduced a [[Scientific method|scientific]] and [[experiment]]al approach to alchemy.]] After [[The fall of the roman empire|the fall of the Roman Empire]], the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about [[Islam]]ic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=46 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> The word ''alchemy'' itself was derived from the Arabic word الكيمياء ''al-kimia''. The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]]nic and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries. In the late 8th century, [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]] (known as "Geber" in Europe) introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on [[scientific method]]ology and controlled [[experiment]]ation in the [[laboratory]], in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work.<ref name=Kraus/> Jabir is thus "considered by many to be the father of [[chemistry]]",<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Zygmunt S.|last=Derewenda|year=2007|title=On wine, chirality and crystallography|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography|volume=64|pages=246–258 [247]|doi=10.1107/S0108767307054293|pmid=18156689|bibcode = 2008AcCrA..64..246D }}</ref> albeit others reserve that title for [[Robert Boyle]] or [[Antoine Lavoisier]]. The historian of science, Paul Kraus, wrote: {{quote|To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the [[Greek language]]. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by [[Byzantine science|Byzantine scientists]] from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail .... The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the ''[[Ilm (Arabic)|`ilm]]'' and the ''`amal''. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the ''Book of Seventy''.<ref name=Kraus>Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, ''Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,''. Cairo (1942–1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. {{cite web|author=[[Ahmad Y Hassan]]|title=A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Geber/Geber%203.htm|accessdate=9 August 2008}})</ref>}} Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation: {{Quotation|The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments,<br /> for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1931|p=60}}</ref>}} Early Islamic chemists such as [[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Jabir Ibn Hayyan]] (جابر بن حيان in Arabic, Geberus in Latin; usually rendered in English as Geber), [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus) and [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rasis or Rhazes in Latin) contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic ([[hydrochloric acid]]), [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[nitric acid]]s, and more. The discovery that [[aqua regia]], a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was ''[[Takwin]]'', the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''.<ref name=burckhardt29/> According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.<ref name=burckhardt29>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=29 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five [[classical element]]s ([[aether (classical element)|aether]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Fire (classical element)|fire]] and [[Water (classical element)|water]]), in addition to two [[chemical element]]s representing the metals: [[Sulfur|sulphur]], 'the stone which burns', which characterized the principle of combustibility, and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] giving solidity.<ref name="r8">Strathern, Paul. (2000), ''Mendeleyev's Dream – the Quest for the Elements'', New York: Berkley Books</ref> The [[atomic theory]] of [[corpuscularianism]], where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and the scientific revolution|first=Bruce T.|last=Moran|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=0-674-01495-2|page=146|quote=a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the medieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)}}</ref> During the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]],<ref>Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in [[Oliver Leaman]] & [[Hossein Nasr]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 174. London: [[Routledge]].</ref> [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marmura | first1 = Michael E. | author-separator =, | author-name-separator= | year = 1965 | title = ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] | url = | journal = Speculum | volume = 40 | issue = 4| pages = 744–6 | doi=10.2307/2851429}}</ref> [[Avicenna]]<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196–197.</ref> and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]]. ===Alchemy in Medieval Europe=== <!-- [[Aludel]] links to this section--> [[File:JosephWright-Alchemist-1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|<!--ORIGINAL CAPTION, MAY BE INCORRECT: ''The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone''. MAY BE ACTUALLY Scheele discovering phosphorus.--> Painting by [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], 1771]] The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe occurred on 11 February 1144, with the completion of [[Robert of Chester|Robert of Chester's]] translation of the Arabic ''Book of the Composition of Alchemy''. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century [[Toledo, Spain]], through contributors like [[Gerard of Cremona]] and [[Adelard of Bath]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=105–108}}</ref> Translations of the time included the [[Turba Philosophorum]], and the works of [[Avicenna]] and [[al-Razi]]. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|p=110}}</ref> Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. [[Anselm of Canterbury|Saint Anselm]] (1033–1109) put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. [[Peter Abelard]] (1079–1142) followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. And later, [[Robert Grosseteste]] (1170–1253) used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.<ref name=hollister294f>{{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | location=Blacklick, Ohio | publisher=McGraw–Hill College | year=1990 | isbn=0-07-557141-2 | edition=6th |pages=294f}}</ref> Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered around translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Roger Bacon]] are the most notable of these.<ref>John Read. ''From Alchemy to Chemistry.'' 1995 p.90</ref> Their works explained and summarized the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. There is little to suggest that Albertus Magnus (1193–1280), a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]], was himself an alchemist. In his authentic works such as the ''Book of Minerals'', he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus, and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, twenty-eight or more alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.<ref>James A. Weisheipl. ''Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays.'' PIMS. 1980. p.187-202</ref> Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274). Roger Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford [[Franciscan]] who studied a wide variety of topics including [[optics]], [[linguistics|languages]] and medicine. After studying the [[Pseudo-Aristotle|Pseudo-Aristotelian]] [[Secretum Secretorum]] around 1247, he dramatically shifted his studies towards a vision of a universal science which included alchemy and astrology. Bacon maintained that Albertus Magnus' ignorance of the fundamentals of alchemy prevented a complete picture of wisdom. While alchemy was not more important to him than any of the other sciences, and he did not produce symbolic allegorical works, Bacon's contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian theology. Bacon's writings demonstrated an integration of morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with [[Pope Clement IV]] highlighted this integration, calling attention to the importance of alchemy to the papacy.<ref>Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." ''Ambix.'' Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.</ref> Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into the practical and theoretical. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical however, confirmed the theoretical through experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=120–121}}</ref> Soon after Bacon, the influential work of [[Pseudo-Geber]] (sometimes identified as [[Paul of Taranto]]) appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holmyard|1957|pp=134–141}}.</ref> By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]]). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | page=149 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49</ref> [[Dante]], [[Piers the Ploughman]], and [[Chaucer]] all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. [[Pope John XXII]]'s 1317 edict, ''Spondent quas non exhibent'' forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists.<ref>John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. ''John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition.'' Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170</ref> In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (Although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV <ref>D. Geoghegan, "A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10-17</ref>). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of [[Petrus Bonus]], [[John of Rupescissa]] and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.<ref>Leah DeVun. ''From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages.'' Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104</ref> [[Nicolas Flamel]] is a well known alchemist, but a good example of [[pseudepigraphy]], the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linden|2003|p=123}}</ref><ref>"Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or" by Nigel Wilkins</ref> Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the [[philosopher's stone]]. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.<ref>{{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul | location=Baltimore | publisher=Penguin | year=1967 | pages=170–181 | others=Trans. William Stoddart | isbn=0-906540-96-8}}</ref> Through the [[late Middle Ages]] (1300–1500) alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. [[Bernard Trevisan]] and [[George Ripley (alchemist)|George Ripley]] made similar contributions in the 14th and 15th centuries. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbol]]ism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. ===Alchemy in the Renaissance and modern age=== {{Further|Renaissance magic|natural magic}} [[File:Raimundus Lullus alchemic page.jpg|thumb|right|Page from alchemic treatise of [[Ramon Llull]], 16th century]] During the [[Renaissance]], Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. Francis Melville, in his translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy, commented on the Emerald Tablet and the Hermetic texts by stating, "Here was an ancient body of theological, philosophical, scientific, and medical writings of extraordinary beauty, intellectual power, and spiritual authority, in which Jews, Christians, and Muslims could find confirmations, amplifications, and refinements of their own sacred teachings." In the late 15th century, [[Marsilo Ficino]] translated the [[Corpus Hermeticum]] and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. [[Renaissance Humanism]] and [[Renaissance Neoplatonism]] guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]] (1486–1535) who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his ''De Occulta Philosophia'' he attempted to merge [[Kabbalah]], Hermetism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.<ref>Glenn Alexander Magee. ''Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition.'' Cornell University Press. 2008. p.30</ref><ref>Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. ''The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction.'' Oxford University Press. 2008 p.60</ref> Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from [[chrysopoeia]]. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."<ref>{{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | location=New York | publisher=Stein and Day | year=1977 | page=47 | isbn=0-552-11463-4 }}</ref> His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.<ref>{{cite book | author=[[Debus, Allen G.]] and Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | location=Los Angeles | publisher=William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | pages=6–12 }}</ref> Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named [[spagyrics]] (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together'', based on the Latin alchemic maxim: ''solve et coagula'').<ref>Joseph Needham. ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy.'' Cambridge University Press. P.9</ref> [[Iatrochemistry]] also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. [[John Dee]] (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Though better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and consultant to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], Dee's alchemical ''Monas Hieroglyphica'', written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom ''As above so below''.<ref>William Royall Newman, Anthony Grafton. ''Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe''. MIT Press, 2001. P.173.</ref> [[File:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|250px|"Alchemist [[Michał Sędziwój|Sędziwój]]" (1566–1636) by [[Jan Matejko]], 1867]] Entrepreneurial opportunities were not uncommon for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.4</ref> [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]], in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate [[Edward Kelley]]. [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV of Scotland]],<ref>''Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland'', vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409.</ref> [[Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]], [[Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn]], and [[Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]] all contracted alchemists.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.85-98</ref> John's son [[Arthur Dee]] worked as a court physician to [[Michael I of Russia]] and [[Charles I of England]] but also compiled the alchemical book ''[[Fasciculus Chemicus]]''. Though most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. ''Betrüger'' would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as [[Michael Maier]] and [[Heinrich Khunrath]] wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the [[con artist]]s.<ref>Tara E. Nummedal. ''Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire.'' p.171</ref> False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, had a laboratory built at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute. [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]] who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include [[Robert Boyle]], and [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]]. Their Hermetism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. ===The decline of European alchemy=== [[File:The Shannon Portrait of the Hon Robert Boyle.jpg|thumb|right|Robert Boyle]] The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its [[apogee]] in the 18th century. As late as 1781 [[James Price (chemist)|James Price]] claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. [[Boyle's law]]) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.<ref>{{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry | location=London | publisher=John Murray | year=1959 | page=11 }}</ref> This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]] — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philosopher's stone. Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation ([[William Harvey|Harvey]], 1616), and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs ([[Robert Koch|Koch]] and [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]], 19th century) or lack of ''natural'' nutrients and [[vitamin]]s ([[James Lind (physician)|Lind]], [[Christiaan Eijkman|Eijkman]], [[Casimir Funk|Funk]], et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies. During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the [[Royal Society]]: [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Elias Ashmole]]. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the [[philosopher's stone]] might be used to summon and communicate with angels.<ref> * ''Journal of the History of Ideas, 41'', 1980, '''p293-318''' *{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=399}} * ''The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest'', by Lawrence M. Principe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, '''pp 188 90''' </ref> The words "alchemy" and "chemistry" were used interchangeably during most of the 17th century; only during the 18th century was a distinction drawn rigidly between the two.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37"/><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=386}}</ref> In the 18th century, "alchemy" was considered to be restricted to the realm of "gold making", leading to the popular belief that most, if not all, alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp386"/> The obscure and secretive writings of the alchemists was used as a case by those who wished to forward a fraudulent and non-scientific opinion of alchemy.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp387">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=387}}</ref> In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanpp386–7">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|pp=386–7}}</ref> During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp387"/><ref name="KripalShuck2005p27">{{Harvnb|Kripal|Shuck|2005|p=27}}</ref> The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Eliade|1994|p=49}}</ref><ref name="PrincipeNewmanp388">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=388}}</ref> This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp388"/> In the 19th century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were [[Mary Anne Atwood]] and [[Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)|Ethan Allen Hitchcock]], who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy."<ref name="PrincipeNewmanp391">{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=391}}</ref><ref name="Rutkin2001p143">{{Harvnb|Rutkin|2001|p=143}}</ref> Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including [[Eliphas Levi]], [[Arthur Edward Waite]], and [[Rudolf Steiner]]. Hitchcock, in his ''Remarks Upon Alchymists'' (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], published his studies on [[Odic force]], a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.<ref>Daniel Merkur. ''Gnosis: An Esoteric Tradition of Mystical Visions and Unions.'' SUNY Press. 1993 p.55</ref> ===Indian alchemy=== {{Main|Rasayana}} {{See also|History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent}} According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the [[Vedas]] describe a connection between eternal life and gold. The use of [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] for alchemy is first documented in the 4th- to 3rd-century BC [[Arthashastra|Artha-śāstra]]. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts from 2nd- to 5th-century AD mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy was introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of [[Alexander the Great]] in 325 BC, and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like [[Gandhāra]].<ref>Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). ''Alchemy''. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008).</ref> An 11th-century [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Persian chemist]] and [[Medicine in medieval Islam|physician]] named [[Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī]] reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in [[Sanskrit]] is called [[Rasayāna]] and in Persian [[Rasavātam]]. It means the art of obtaining/manipulating ''Rasa'': nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercury as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age." One thing is sure though, Indian alchemy like every other Indian science is focused on finding [[Moksha]]: perfection, immortality, liberation. As such it focuses its efforts on transmutation of the human body: from mortal to immortal. Many are the traditional stories of alchemists still alive since time immemorial due to the effects of their experiments. Since alchemy eventually became ingrained in the vast field of Indian erudition, influences from other metaphysical and philosophical doctrines such as [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Vaisheshika]] and [[Ayurveda]] were inevitable. Nonetheless, most of the [[Rasayāna]] texts track their origins back to [[Kaula]] tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of [[Matsyendranath]]. Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were [[Nagarjuna (metallurgist)|Nāgārjuna Siddha]] and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, ''Rasendramangalam'', is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote ''Rasaratnākara'', also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, "rasa" translates as "mercury" and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method or converting mercury into gold.<ref>See Dominik Wujastyk, "An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasaratnākara of Nāgarjuna" in ''Ambix'' 31.2 (1984): 70-83. Online at http://univie.academia.edu/DominikWujastyk/Papers/152766/</ref> Reliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the publication of ''The Alchemical Body'' by David Gordon White.<ref>See bibliographical details and links at http://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body</ref> Trustworthy scholarship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account. An important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been provided by David Gordon White at [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0046.xml?rskey=skoSqW&result=1&q=rasayana#firstMatch Oxford Bibliographies Online].<ref>DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195399318-0046</ref> ===Chinese alchemy=== {{Main|Chinese alchemy}} [[File:Esoteric Taijitu.svg|thumb| upright=0.5|Taoist Alchemists often use this alternate version of the [[Taijitu]].]] Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The [[philosopher's stone]] of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. [[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, [[China|Chinese]] alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a [[potion]] for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in [[fireworks]] in China by the 10th century, it was used in [[cannon]]s by 1290. From China, the use of [[gunpowder]] spread to Japan, the [[Mongol]]s, the Arab world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoist]] forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]], and to martial arts such as [[T'ai chi ch'uan|Tai Chi Chuan]] and [[Kung Fu]] (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early [[Song Dynasty]], followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest [[cinnabar|mercuric sulfide]], which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the [[Qi]], etc.). ===Alchemy as a subject of historical research=== The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.<ref name="Antoine Faivre 1995. p.viii–xv">Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. ''Western esotericism and the science of religion.'' 1995. p.viii–xvi</ref> As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and [[philosophy]], the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[Kabbalah|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements.<ref>[http://centres.exeter.ac.uk/exeseso/ See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website]</ref> Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at [[University of Indiana|Indiana University]], the [[University of Exeter]] Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the [[European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]] (ESSWE), and the [[University of Amsterdam|University of Amsterdam's]] Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the [[Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica]] in Amsterdam. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include '[[Ambix]]', published by the Society for the History of alchemy and Chemistry, and '[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]', published by The History of Science Society. ==Modern alchemy== Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=385}}</ref> Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science [[Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[William R. Newman]], have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These practitioners have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.<ref>Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/alchemy-may-not-been-pseudoscience-we-thought-it-was-180949430/#ixzz2sYcrpZl7 Smithsonian Magazine.] February 2014.</ref> At the opposite end of the spectrum, esoteric alchemists interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from [[New Age]] or radical environmentalism movements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=396}}</ref> Groups like the rosicrucians and freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. ===Alchemy in traditional medicine=== Traditional medicine sometimes involves the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In [[Ayurveda]] the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] are claimed to transform [[heavy metals]] and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.<ref>Junius, Manfred M; ''The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs''; Healing Arts Press 1985</ref> Spagyrists of the 20th century [[Frater Albertus|Albert Richard Riedel]] and Jean Dubuis merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, ''Les Philosophes de la Nature'' and ''The Paracelsus Research Society'', popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products.<ref>Joscelyn Godwin. ''The Golden Thread: The Ageless Wisdom of the Western Mystery Traditions.'' Quest Books, 2007. p.120</ref> The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a new age medicinal practice. === Psychology === Alchemical symbolism has been used by [[psychology|psychologists]] such as [[Carl Jung]] who reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and presented the inner meaning of alchemical work as a [[spirituality|spiritual]] path.<ref name="Jung, C. G. 1944">Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge.</ref><ref>Jung, C. G., & Hinkle, B. M. (1912). Psychology of the Unconscious : a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, a contribution to the history of the evolution of thought. London: Kegan Paul Trench Trubner. (revised in 1952 as Symbols of Transformation, Collected Works Vol.5 ISBN 0-691-01815-4).</ref> Jung was deeply interested in the occult since his youth, participating in seances, which he used as the basis for his doctoral dissertation "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena."<ref>''The Jung Cult'', by Ricard Noll, ''Princeton University Press'', 1994, '''p144'''</ref> In 1913, Jung had already adopted a "spiritualist and redemptive interpretation of alchemy", likely reflecting his interest in the occult literature of the 19th century.<ref>Noll. ''Aryan Christ''. '''p171'''</ref> Jung began writing his views on alchemy from the 1920s and continued until the end of his life. His interpretation of [[Chinese alchemy|Chinese alchemical texts]] in terms of his [[analytical psychology]] also served the function of comparing Eastern and Western alchemical imagery and core concepts and hence its possible inner sources ([[Jungian archetypes|archetypes]]).<ref>C.-G. Jung Preface to [[Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)|Richard Wilhelm]]'s translation of the [[I Ching]].</ref><ref>C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of [[Secret of the Golden Flower|The Secret of The Golden Flower]].</ref><ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33">Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33</ref> Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of [[individuation]].<ref name="Jung, C. G. 1944"/><ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33"/> In his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which [[Gnosticism]] survived its various purges into the [[Renaissance]],<ref name="Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. ''The Cambridge companion to Jung.'' Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33"/><ref>Jung, C. G., & Jaffe A. (1962). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. London: Collins. This is Jung's autobiography, recorded and edited by Aniela Jaffe, ISBN 0-679-72395-1.</ref> a concept also followed by others such as [[Stephan A. Hoeller]]. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to a [[Yoga]] of the East, and more adequate to the Western mind than Eastern religions and philosophies. The practice of Alchemy seemed to change the mind and spirit of the Alchemist. Conversely, spontaneous changes on the mind of Western people undergoing any important stage in individuation seems to produce, on occasion, imagery known to Alchemy and relevant to the person's situation.<ref>Jung, C. G.—Psychology and Alchemy; Symbols of Transformation.</ref> Jung did not completely reject the material experiments of the alchemists, but he massively downplayed it, writing that the transmutation was performed in the mind of the alchemist. He claimed the material substances and procedures were only a projection of the alchemists' internal state, while the real substance to be transformed was the mind itself.<ref>''Redemption in Alchemy'', by Carl Jung, '''p210'''</ref> [[Marie-Louise von Franz]], a disciple of Jung, continued Jung's studies on alchemy and its psychological meaning. Jung's work exercised a great influence on the mainstream perception of alchemy, his approach becoming a stock element in many popular texts on the subject to this day.<ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=401}}</ref> Modern scholars are sometimes critical of the Jungian approach to alchemy as overly reflective of 19th-century occultism.<ref name="NewmanPrincipe2002p37"/><ref name="KripalShuck2005p27"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Principe|Newman|2001|p=418}}</ref> == Magnum opus == {{Main|Magnum opus (alchemy)}} The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. *''[[nigredo]]'', a blackening or melanosis *''[[Albedo (alchemy)|albedo]]'', a whitening or leucosis *''[[citrinitas]]'', a yellowing or xanthosis *''[[rubedo]]'', a reddening, purpling, or iosis<ref>Joseph Needham. ''Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention: magisteries of gold and immortality.'' Cambridge. 1974. p.23</ref> == Alchemy in art and entertainment == {{Main|Alchemy in art and entertainment}} Alchemy has had a long standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. ''Literary alchemy'' appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett. Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, comics and video games. == See also == {{Alchemy}} {{Columns-list|3| *[[The Alchemist]] *[[Biological transmutation]] *[[Chemistry]] *[[Chinese alchemy]] *[[Cupellation]] *[[Hermes Trismegistus]] *[[Historicism]] *[[List of alchemists]] *[[Mary the Jewess]] *[[Nuclear transmutation]] *[[Outline of alchemy]] *[[Philosopher's Stone]] *[[Physics]] *[[Porta Alchemica]] *[[Scientific method]] *[[Superseded scientific theories]] *[[Synthesis of precious metals]] }} == Notes and references == {{Reflist|2}} == Bibliography == {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|last= Calian |first= George |authorlink= |title= Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy |publisher= Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU |year= 2010 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= http://www.archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up |accessdate= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last= Eliade |first= Mircea |authorlink= Mircea Eliade |title= The Forge and the Crucible |publisher= [[State University of New York Press]] |year= 1994 |url= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |authorlink1= Eric John Holmyard |title= Makers of Chemistry |publisher= [[Clarendon Press]] |location = Oxford |year= 1931 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= http://www.archive.org/details/makersofchemistr029725mbp |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Holmyard |first1= Eric John |authorlink1= Eric John Holmyard |title= Alchemy |publisher= [[Courier Dover Publications]] |year= 1957 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=7Bt-kwKRUzUC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |authorlink= |title= Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration |publisher= [[University Press of Kentucky]] |year= 1996 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=isJY9jWdru0C&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Linden |first1= Stanton J. |authorlink1= |title= The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |year= 2003 |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Newman |first1= William R. |last2= Principe |first2= Lawrence M. |authorlink2= Lawrence M. Principe |title= Alchemy Tried in the Fire |publisher= [[University of Chicago Press]] |year= 2002 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=eQERmMdykZEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= von Franz |first1= Marie Louise |authorlink= Marie-Louise von Franz |title= Alchemical Active Imagination |publisher= [[Shambhala Publications]] |location= Boston |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-87773-589-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=wOVUUMirSnEC&lpg=PP1&dq=alchemy&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Kripal |first1= Jeffrey John |authorlink1= Jeffrey John Kripal |last2= Shuck |first2= Glenn W. |authorlink2= Glenn Shuck |title= On the Edge of the Future |publisher= [[Indiana University Press]] |date=July 2005 |isbn= 978-0-253-34556-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=mffc2m9D3REC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book| last=Principe| first=Lawrence M.|title=The secrets of alchemy|location=Chicago &London|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=9780226682952}} *{{cite book|last1= Principe |first1= Lawrence M. |authorlink1= Lawrence M. Principe |last2= Newman |first2= William R. |authorlink2= |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor1-link= |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |chapter= Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy |chapterurl= |pages= 385–432 |ref= harv }} *{{cite book|last1= Rutkin |first1= H. Darrel |authorlink1= |editor1-last= Newman |editor1-first= William R. |editor1-link= |editor2-last= Grafton |editor2-first= Anthony |editor2-link= Anthony Grafton |title= Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe |publisher= [[MIT Press]] |year= 2001 |isbn= 978-0-262-14075-1 |oclc= |doi= |bibcode= |arxiv= |asin= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |ol= |osti= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=CMuJGpztRFMC |accessdate= 17 December 2011 |chapter= Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's ''Astronomia Nova'' and Galileo's ''Sidereus Nuncius'' |chapterurl= |pages= 133–172 |ref= harv }} {{refend}} == External links == {{Wiktionary|alchemy}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons category}} {{wikisource|Portal:Alchemy|Alchemy}} {{wikibooks}} <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF |--> <!--| LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, |--> <!--| but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link |--> <!--| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)|--> <!--| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |--> <!--| |--> <!--| Links that have not been verified WILL BE DELETED. |--> <!--| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details |--> <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> * [http://www.ambix.org/ SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry] * [http://www.esswe.org ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism] * [http://www.aseweb.org Association for the Study of Esotericism] * [http://www.alchemywebsite.com The Alchemy Website.] &ndash; [[Adam McLean]]'s online collections and academic discussion. * {{In Our Time|Alchemy|p003k9bn|Alchemy}} * [http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy * [http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/digitallibrary/alchemy.html Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500-2000] &ndash; A digital exhibition from the [http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/ Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University] {{Alchemy}} {{Metaphysics}} {{Philosophy of science}} [[Category:Alchemy| ]] [[Category:Hermeticism]] [[Category:Esotericism]] {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|he}} {{Link FA|it}} {{Link FA|tl}} {{Link FA|nl}} k6sdz1wx7xgup221ae7k701zki1m7ra wikitext text/x-wiki 0 575 505947398 505678245 2012-08-05T19:25:10Z Gene93k 5014595 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/220.93.76.246|220.93.76.246]] ([[User talk:220.93.76.246|talk]]): Restored redirect. ([[WP:TW|TW]]) #REDIRECT [[Aviation]] 03dmefclubnnc3l1b6llw8gunjj4it8 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 579 602451808 601404722 2014-04-02T18:19:09Z JustAGal 1499324 Disambiguated: [[Loveboat]] → [[Loveboat (album)]] {{pp-pc1|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Wiktionary|alien|aliens}} '''Alien''' may refer to: * [[Extraterrestrial life]], life which does not originate from Earth * [[Alien (law)]], a non-citizen resident of a country {{TOC right}} ==Science and technology== <!--keep at top--> * [[Introduced species]], a species not native to its environment * [[Alien (software)]], a Linux program * [[AliEn (ALICE Environment)]], a grid framework * [[Alien Technology]], a manufacturer of RFID technology * ''Aliens'', a newsletter of the IUCN [[Invasive Species Specialist Group]] ==Entertainment== ===Film=== * [[Alien (film)|''Alien'' (film)]], a 1979 film by Ridley Scott ** [[Aliens (film)|''Aliens'' (film)]], a 1986 sequel by James Cameron ** [[Alien (franchise)|''Alien'' (franchise)]], the film franchise, including other sequels ** [[Alien (creature in Alien franchise)|Alien (creature in ''Alien'' franchise)]] ** [[Alien (soundtrack)|''Alien'' (soundtrack)]] ** [[Aliens (soundtrack)|''Aliens'' (soundtrack)]] ** [[Aliens (novel series)|''Aliens'' (novel series)]] ** [[Aliens (comic book)|''Aliens'' (comic book)]] * [[The Alien (film)|''The Alien'' (film)]], an incomplete 1960s Indian-American film ===Music=== * [[Alien (album)|''Alien'' (album)]], by Strapping Young Lad * [[Alien (band)]], a 1980s Swedish rock group * [[The Aliens (Scottish band)]], a 2005–present rock group * [[The Aliens (Australian band)]], a 1970s new wave group * [[Alien (song)|"Alien" (song)]], by Pennywise * [[Alien (Third Day song)|"Alien" (Third Day song)]] * [[Alien (Britney Spears song)|"Alien" (Britney Spears song)]] * "Alien", a song by Bush on the album ''[[Sixteen Stone]]'' * "Alien", a song by Erasure on the album ''[[Loveboat (album)|Loveboat]]'' * "Alien", a song by Japan on the album ''[[Quiet Life]]'' * "Alien", a song by Lamb on the album ''[[Fear of Fours]]'' * "Alien", a song by Nerina Pallot on the album ''[[Dear Frustrated Superstar]]'' * "Alien", a song by P-Model on the album ''[[Landsale]]'' * "Alien", a song by Thriving Ivory on [[Thriving Ivory (album)|their self-titled album]] * "Alien", a song by Tokio Hotel on the album ''[[Humanoid (album)|Humanoid]]'' * "The Aliens", a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]] ===Other=== * [[Aliens (1902 novel)|''Aliens'' (1902 novel)]], by Mary Tappan Wright * [[The Alien (Animorphs)|''The Alien'' (Animorphs)]], the eighth book in the ''Animorphs'' series * [[Aliens (Kaypro video game)|''Aliens'' (Kaypro video game)]], a text-only clone of ''Space Invaders'' written for the CP/M operating system ==Other uses== * [[Alien (shipping company)]], a Russian company * [[Alien (literary concept)]] * [[Alien Sun]] (born 1974), Singaporean actress * ''Alien'', a perfume by [[Thierry Mugler#Fragrances|Thierry Mugler]] == See also == * [[Astrobiology]] * [[List of Alien and Predator games|List of ''Alien'' and ''Predator'' games]] * "My Alien", a song by Simple Plan on the album ''[[No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls]]'' * [[Alians]], an Islamic order * ''[[ATLiens]]'', a 1996 album by OutKast * {{Lookfrom|Alien}} * {{Intitle|Alien}} {{disambiguation}} rzuzhfanyf2666iuqcbmrxv1yww44wr wikitext text/x-wiki 0 580 601932423 601932406 2014-03-30T08:03:31Z 121.220.130.55 /* Modern astronomers */ {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} [[File:JohannesVermeer-TheAstronomer(1668).jpg|thumb|250px|''[[The Astronomer (Vermeer)|The Astronomer]]'' by [[Johannes Vermeer]] (c. 1668)]] An '''astronomer''' is a scientist who studies [[Celestial body|celestial bodies]] such as [[black hole]]s, [[moon]]s, [[planet]]s, [[star]]s, [[nebula]]e, and [[Galaxy|galaxies]], as well as [[Gamma-ray burst]]s and [[cosmic microwave background radiation]]. A related but distinct subject, [[cosmology]], is concerned with studying the [[universe]] as a whole. An astronomer researches the world beyond earth. Historically, [[astronomy]] was more concerned with the classification and description of [[phenomena]] in the sky, while [[astrophysics]] attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in [[physics]] or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.noao.edu/education/astfaq.html |title=Frequently Asked Questions About Becoming an Astronomer |accessdate=29 March 2009 |work= |publisher=NOAO| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090403101540/http://www.noao.edu/education/astfaq.html| archivedate= 3 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The number of professional astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The [[American Astronomical Society]], which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,700 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, [[geology]], and [[engineering]], whose research interests are closely related to astronomy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aas.org/ |title=American Astronomical Society Home |accessdate=14 August 2009 |work= |publisher=AAS| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090802044012/http://aas.org/| archivedate= 2 August 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The [[International Astronomical Union]] comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iau.org/about/ |title=About IAU |accessdate=14 August 2009 |work= |publisher=IAU}}</ref> While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers,{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} the field is popular among [[amateurs]]. Most cities have [[amateur astronomy]] clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host [[star party|star parties]]. The [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.astrosociety.org/about.html |title=About Us |accessdate=29 March 2009 |work= |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090225074145/http://astrosociety.org/about.html| archivedate= 25 February 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Like any [[hobby]], most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to [[stargazing]] and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious, who own science-grade [[telescope]]s and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research. ==Modern astronomers== [[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|right|thumb|180px|[[Galileo]] is often referred to as the Father of Modern Astronomy.]] Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a [[charge-coupled device]] camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the [[light]] is added over time. Before CCDs, [[photographic plates]] were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes - most spend a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena or make predictions for observational astronomers. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes [[planetarium]]s as a public service to encourage interest in the field. ==See also== *[[List of astronomers]] *[[List of Muslim astronomers]] *[[Physical cosmology|Cosmologists]] *[[List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==References== * {{Cite book|last=Dallal |first=Ahmad |contribution=Science, Medicine and Technology |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |year=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], New York|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->|isbn=0-300-15911-0 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Kennedy|first=E.S.|title=A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables; Transactions of the American Philosophical Society| year=1956|location=[[Philadelphia]]| publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|volume=46|issue=2|ref=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}} * {{Cite encyclopedia | last = Toomer | first = Gerald | title = Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 7 | editor = Gillispie, Charles Coulston | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year = 1990 | isbn = 0-684-16962-2 | ref=harv }} ==External links== * [http://www.aas.org American Astronomical Society] * [http://www.iau.org International Astronomical Union] * [http://www.astrosociety.org Astronomical Society of the Pacific] {{Portal bar|Astronomy}} [[Category:Astronomy| ]] [[Category:Astronomers| ]] [[Category:Science occupations]] lmum00o4anym82vgfkuh5ayq3lrhqrr wikitext text/x-wiki 0 583 528945215 15899114 2012-12-20T11:30:09Z MZMcBride 212624 [[bugzilla:42616]] #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]] rcbb6sk2ztllwg67on02f89ztnuy7ic wikitext text/x-wiki 0 584 599820285 576950627 2014-03-16T05:01:18Z Gaius Cornelius 293907 Format dates and tidy using [[Project:AWB|AWB]] {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} [[Image:Ammonia tepida.jpg|thumb|[[Foraminifera]]n (''[[Ammonia tepida]]'')]] '''Amoeboids''' are [[unicellular|single-celled]] life-forms characterized by an irregular shape.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.memidex.com/amoeboid |title=amoeboid |work=Memidex (WordNet) Dictionary/Thesaurus |accessdate=2 December 2010}}</ref> "Amoeboid" and "'''amœba'''" are often used interchangeably even by biologists,<ref> {{cite journal | author=Eric Bapteste, Henner Brinkmann, Jennifer A. Lee, Dorothy V. Moore, Christoph W. Sensen, Paul Gordon, Laure Duruflé, Terry Gaasterland, Philippe Lopez, Miklós Müller & Hervé Philippe | title=The analysis of 100 genes supports the grouping of three highly divergent amoebae: Dictyostelium, Entamoeba, and Mastigamoeba | journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | year=2001 | volume=99 | issue = 3 | pages=1414–1419 | url=http://www.pnas.org/content/99/3/1414.full.pdf | doi=10.1073/pnas.032662799 | pmid=11830664 | pmc=122205 }} </ref> and especially refer to a creature moving by using [[pseudopod]]ia. Most references to "amoebas" or "amoebae" are to amoeboids in general rather than to the specific genus ''[[Amoeba]]''. The genus ''Amoeba'' and amoeboids in general both derive their names from the ancient Greek word for change. ==Shape and structure== Amoeboids [[Amoeboid movement|move using pseudopodia]], which are bulges of [[cytoplasm]]. Amoebas breathe using their entire [[cell membrane]] that is constantly immersed in water. Excess water can cross into the [[cytosol]]. Amoebas have a contractile [[vacuole]] to expel excess water. Food sources vary in amoeboids. They may consume bacteria or other [[protist]]s. Some are [[detritivore]]s and eat dead organic material. They extend a pair of pseudopodia around food. They fuse to make a food vacuole which then fuses with a [[lysosome]] to add digestive chemicals. Undigested food is expelled at the cell membrane. Amoebas use pseudopodia to move and feed. They are powered by flexible [[microfilament]]s near the membrane. Microfilaments are at least 50% of the [[cytoskeleton]]. The other parts are more stiff and are composed of [[intermediate filament]]s and [[microtubule]]s. These are not used in amoeboid movement, but are stiff skeletons on which [[organelles]] are supported or can move on. The shells of amoebas are often composed of [[calcium]]. The proteins or materials are synthesised in the cell and exported just outside the cell membrane. ===Multicellular amoebas: Slime molds=== {{main|Slime mold}} Amoebas seem to have connections with two phyla (now defunct) composed of [[multicellular organism]]s of the lineage of fungus-like protists, the so-called [[slime mold]]s. These two defunct phyla were the [[Myxomycota]] (i.e., plasmodial slime molds, now classified in the taxon [[Myxogastria]]), and [[Acrasiomycota]] (i.e. cellular slime molds, now divided into the taxa [[Acrasida]] and [[Dictyosteliida]]). These two phyla use amoeboid movement in their feeding stage. The former is basically a giant [[multinucleate]] amoeba, while the latter lives solitary until food runs out; in which a colony of these functions as a unit. Myxomycete slime molds use amoeboid gametes, as well. ==Diversity== They have appeared in a number of different groups. Some cells in multicellular animals may be amoeboid, for instance human [[white blood cell]]s, which consume pathogens. Many [[protist]]s also exist as individual amoeboid cells, or take such a form at some point in their life-cycle. The most famous such organism is ''[[Amoeba|Amoeba proteus]]''; the name amoeba is variously used to describe its close relatives, other organisms similar to it, or the amoeboids in general. ==Classification== As amoebas themselves are [[polyphyletic]] and subject to some imprecision in definition, the term "amoeboid" does not provide identification of an organism, and is better understood as description of locomotion. When used in the broader sense, the term can include many different groups. One source includes 97 different genera.<ref name="urlThe Amoebae">{{cite web |url=http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm |title=The Amoebae |work= |accessdate=2 May 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090412100203/http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm| archivedate= 12 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Others include far fewer. ===Older classification=== In older classification systems, amoeboids, under the taxon name '''Sarcodina''', had been divided into several [[Morphology (biology)#Morphology and classification|morphological categories]] based on the form and structure of their [[pseudopod]]s. Amoeboids with pseudopods supported by regular arrays of [[microtubule]]s were called '''actinopods''', whereas those that weren't were called '''rhizopods''', which were further subdivided into lobose, filose, and reticulose amoebae. In contrast to "rhizopods", where most of their morphologies can be mapped to modern classification systems, "actinopods" appear to be extensively [[polyphyletic]]. Actinopods are divided into [[radiolaria]] and [[heliozoa]] (itself a polyphyletic grouping). Finally, there was also a strange group of giant marine amoeboids, the [[xenophyophore]]s, that did not fall into any of these categories. ===Modern classification=== More modern classifications are based upon [[cladistics]]. It has been stated that most amoeboid are now grouped in [[Amoebozoa]] or [[Rhizaria]].<ref name="pmid19335771">{{cite journal |author=Pawlowski J, Burki F |title=Untangling the phylogeny of amoeboid protists |journal=J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=16–25 |year=2009 |pmid=19335771 |doi=10.1111/j.1550-7408.2008.00379.x}}</ref> However, in contexts where "amoeboid" is defined more loosely, there are many amoeboid species that are in the [[Excavata]] clade. Phylogenetic analyses place these genera into the following groups (not all of these are considered amoeboid (or "amoebas") by all sources): {| class="wikitable" |- ! Grouping ! Genera ! Morphology |- style="background:#FFC8A0;" | [[Amoebozoa]] | *'''[[Lobosea]]''': ** ''[[Acanthamoeba]], [[Amoeba (genus)|Amoeba]], [[Balamuthia]], [[Chaos (amoeba)|Chaos]], [[Clydonella]], [[Discamoeba]], [[Echinamoeba]], [[Filamoeba]], [[Flabellula]], [[Gephyramoeba]], [[Glaeseria]], [[Hartmannella]], [[Hydramoeba]], [[Korotnevella]] ([[Dactylamoeba]]), [[Leptomyxa]], [[Lingulamoeba]], [[Mastigina]], [[Mayorella]], [[Metachaos]], [[Neoparamoeba]], [[Paramoeba]], [[Polychaos]], [[Phreatamoeba]], [[Platyamoeba]], [[Protoacanthamoeba]], [[Rhizamoeba]], [[Saccamoeba]], [[Sappinia]], [[Stereomyxa]], [[Thecamoeba]], [[Trichamoeba]], [[Trichosphaerium]], [[Unda]], [[Vannella]], [[Vexillifera]]'' *[[Conosa]]: ''[[Endamoeba]]'', ''[[Entamoeba]]'', ''[[Hyperamoeba]],'' ''[[Mastigamoeba]]'', ''[[Mastigella]]'', ''[[Pelomyxa]]'' | valign=top| * Lobose pseudopods ([[Lobosea]]): Lobose pseudopods are blunt, and there may be one or several on a cell, which is usually divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm. |- style="background:rgb(225,204,252);" | [[Rhizaria]] | valign=top| * [[Cercozoa]]: **'''[[Filosa]]''': ***'''[[Monadofilosa]]''': ''[[Gyromitus]]'', ''[[Paulinella]]'' ***'''[[Granofilosea]]''': **'''[[Endomyxa]]''': ***[[Proteomyxidea]]: ''[[Vampyrella]]'' ***[[Gromiidea]] ***[[Ascetosporea]] * [[Foraminifera]] * [[Radiolaria]] | valign=top| * Filose pseudopods ([[Filosa]]): Filose pseudopods are narrow and tapering. The vast majority of filose amoebae, including all those that produce shells, are placed within the [[Cercozoa]] together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms. The naked filose amoebae also includes [[vampyrellid]]s. * Reticulose pseudopods ([[Endomyxa]]): Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net. They are found most notably among the [[Foraminifera]], a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi-chambered shells. There are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amoeboids, notably the [[gymnophryid]]s, and their relationships are not certain. * [[Radiolaria]]ns are a subgroup of actinopods that are now grouped with rhizarians. |- style="background:#F0E68C;" | [[Excavate|Excavata]] | valign=top| * '''[[Heterolobosea]]''': **[[Vahlkampfiidae]]: ''[[Monopylocystis]]'', ''[[Naegleria]], [[Neovahlkampfia]], [[Paratetramitus]], [[Paravahlkampfia]], [[Psalteriomonas]], [[Sawyeria]], [[Tetramitus]], [[Vahlkampfia]], [[Willaertia]]'' **[[Gruberellidae]]: ''[[Gruberella]]'', ''[[Stachyamoeba]]'' *[[Parabasalidea]]: ''[[Dientamoeba]]'', ''[[Histomonas]]'' *Other: ''[[Rosculus]]'', ''[[Acrasis]]'', '' [[Heteramoeba]]'', ''[[Learamoeba]]'', ''[[Stygamoeba]]'', ''[[Plaesiobystra]]'',<ref name="Park2009">{{Cite pmid|19121603}}</ref> ''[[Tulamoeba]]''<ref name="Park2009" /> | valign=top| * The [[Heterolobosea]], includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and [[flagellate]] forms. |- style="background:greenyellow;" | [[Chromalveolate]] | [[Heterokont]]: ''[[Hyalodiscus]]'', ''[[Labyrinthula]]''<BR>[[Alveolate|Alveolata]]: ''[[Pfiesteria]]'' | * ''[[Hyalodiscus]]'' and ''[[Pfiesteria]]'' are sometimes considered to have amoeboid characteristics. |- style="background:lightblue;" | [[Nucleariid]] | ''[[Micronuclearia]], [[Nuclearia]]'' | * [[Nucleariid]]s appear to be close relatives of animals and [[fungus|fungi]]. |- | Ungrouped/<BR>unknown | ''[[Adelphamoeba]], [[Astramoeba]], [[Cashia]], [[Dinamoeba]], [[Flagellipodium]], [[Flamella]], [[Gibbodiscus]], [[Gocevia]], [[Hollandella]], [[Iodamoeba]], [[Malamoeba]], [[Nollandia]], [[Oscillosignum]], [[Paragocevia]], [[Parvamoeba]], [[Pernina]], [[Pontifex (genus)|Pontifex]], [[Protonaegleria]], [[Pseudomastigamoeba]], [[Rugipes]], [[Striamoeba]], [[Striolatus]], [[Subulamoeba]], [[Theratromyxa]], [[Trienamoeba]], [[Trimastigamoeba]], [[Vampyrellium]]'' | |} ==Pathogenic interactions with other organisms== Some amoeboids can infect other organisms [[pathogen]]ically (causing disease): *''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]'' is the cause of [[amoebiasis]], or ''amoebic dysentery''. *''[[Naegleria fowleri]]'' (the "brain-eating amoeba") is a fresh-water-native species that can be fatal to humans if introduced through the nose. *''[[Acanthamoeba]]'' can cause amoebic [[keratitis]] and [[encephalitis]] in humans. *''[[Balamuthia mandrillaris]]'' is the cause of (often fatal) [[granulomatous amoebic meningoencephalitis]] == References == {{reflist}} == External links == * [http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm The Amoebae] website brings together information from published sources. * [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html Amoebas are more than just blobs] * [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html Sun Animacules and Amoebas] *[http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/moviegallery/pondscum/protozoa/amoeba/index.html Molecular Expressions Digital Video Gallery: Pond Life - Amoeba (Protozoa)] Some good, informative Amoeba videos. * [http://tolweb.org/notes/?note_id=51 Amoebae: Protists Which Move and Feed Using Pseudopodia] at the Tree of Life web project {{Protozoa protist}} {{Eukaryota classification}} {{Amoebozoa}} {{Rhizaria}} {{Excavata}} [[Category:Cell biology]] [[Category:Amoeboids| ]] [[Category:Motile cells]] hw0wmttj5b3o0m0ku9vldi4jihzlyju wikitext text/x-wiki 0 586 601635070 601634825 2014-03-28T10:27:41Z 141.54.172.31 Undid revision 601634825 by [[Special:Contributions/141.54.172.31|141.54.172.31]] ([[User talk:141.54.172.31|talk]]) {{distinguish2 | MS [[Windows-1252]] or other types of [[Extended ASCII]]}} {{about|the character encoding}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}} [[File:ASCII Code Chart-Quick ref card.jpg|thumb|361px|A chart of ASCII from a 1972 printer manual]] The '''American Standard Code for Information Interchange''' ('''ASCII''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|s|k|i}} {{respell|ASS|kee}})<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/audio.pl?ascii001.wav=ASCII |type=audio |contribution=Pronunciation for ASCII |title=Merriam Webster |accessdate=2008-04-14}}.</ref> is a [[character encoding|character-encoding scheme]] originally based on the [[English alphabet]] that encodes 128 specified [[character (computing)|characters]] - the numbers 0-9, the letters a-z and A-Z, some basic [[punctuation symbol]]s, some [[control code]]s that originated with [[Teletype machine]]s, and a [[Space (punctuation)|blank space]] - into the 7-bit binary integers.<ref>{{cite web |title=RFC 4949 |url=http://tools.ietf.org/search/rfc4949 |date=August 2007 |author=R. Shirley |accessdate=2013-12-23}}</ref> ASCII codes represent text in [[computer]]s, [[communications equipment]], and other devices that use text. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, though they support many additional characters. ASCII developed from [[Telegraph code|telegraphic codes]]. Its first commercial use was as a seven-[[bit]] [[teleprinter]] code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the [[American Standards Association]]'s (ASA) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published during 1963,<ref name="Brandel">{{cite news |first=Mary |last=Brandel |date=July 6, 1999 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9907/06/1963.idg/ |title=1963: The Debut of ASCII |publisher=[[CNN]] |accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=American Standard Code for Information Interchange, ASA X3.4-1963 |publisher=American Standards Association |date=June 17, 1963 |url=http://www.wps.com/J/codes/X3.4-1963/ |accessdate=2013-12-23}}.</ref> a major revision during 1967,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=USA Standard Code for Information Interchange, USAS X3.4-1967 |publisher=United States of America Standards Institute |date=July 7, 1967 |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}.</ref> and the most recent update during 1986.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=American National Standard for Information Systems — Coded Character Sets — 7-Bit American National Standard Code for Information Interchange (7-Bit ASCII), ANSI X3.4-1986 |publisher=American National Standards Institute |date=March 26, 1986 |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing [[control character]]s (many now obsolete)<ref name="Maini2007">{{cite book |last=Maini |first=Anil Kumar |title=Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications |url=http://books.google.com/?id=NQSpNAEACAAJ&pg=PA28 |year=2007 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-470-03214-5 |page=28 |quote=In addition, it defines codes for 33 nonprinting, mostly obsolete control characters that affect how the text is processed.}}</ref> that affect how text and space are processed<ref>International Organization for Standardization (December 1, 1975). "[http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/001.pdf The set of control characters for ISO 646]". ''Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry''. Alternate U.S. version: [http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/006.pdf]. Accessed 2008-04-14.</ref> and 95 printable characters, including the [[space (punctuation)|space]] (which is considered an invisible graphic<ref name="RFC20_1968">[http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc20 "RFC 20: ASCII format for Network Interchange"], ANSI X3.4-1968, October 16, 1969.</ref><ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980223">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p.&nbsp;223.</ref>). The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]] prefers the name '''US-ASCII'''.<ref name="IANA" /> ASCII was the most commonly used character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when it was surpassed by [[UTF-8]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/QA/2008/05/utf8-web-growth.html |title=UTF-8 Growth On The Web |last=Dubost |first=Karl |date=May 6, 2008 |work=W3C Blog |publisher=[[World Wide Web Consortium]] |accessdate=2010-08-15}}</ref><ref name="utf-8-2008">{{cite web |url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2008/05/moving-to-unicode-51.html |title=Moving to Unicode 5.1 |last=Davis |first=Mark |date=May 5, 2008 |work=Official Google Blog |publisher=[[Google]] |accessdate=2010-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/unicode-nearing-50-of-web.html |title=Unicode nearing 50% of the web |last=Davis |first=Mark |date=Jan 28, 2010 |work=Official Google Blog |publisher=[[Google]] |accessdate=2010-08-15}}</ref> which includes ASCII as a subset. ==History== The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association, called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute or USASI<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980211">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p.&nbsp;211.</ref> and ultimately the [[American National Standards Institute]]. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier [[teleprinter]] encoding systems. Like other [[character encoding]]s, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and [[character (computing)|character]] symbols (i.e. [[grapheme]]s and [[control character]]s). This allows [[Digital data|digital]] devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 [[English alphabet|alphabetic]] characters, 10 [[numerical digit]]s, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the [[CCITT|Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique]] (CCITT) [[International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2]] (ITA2) standard, [[Fieldata]], and early [[EBCDIC]], more than 64 codes were required for ASCII. The committee debated the possibility of a [[shift key]] function (like the [[Baudot code]]), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by six [[bit]]s. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for [[data transmission]]; an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980p. 215, Decision 4">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p. 215, Decision 4.</ref> The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits ([[octet (computing)|octet]]s) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with [[binary coded decimal]]. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a [[parity bit]] for [[error checking]] if desired.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980p. 217, Decision 5">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p. 217, Decision 5.</ref> [[Eight-bit]] machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.<ref>{{cite book |authors=Stanley A. Sawyer, Steven George Krantz |title=A TeX Primer for Scientists |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bXLDwmIJNkUC&pg=PA13 |year=1995 |publisher=[[CRC Press|CRC Press, LLC]] |isbn=978-0-8493-7159-2 |page=13}}</ref> The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together, and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two columns (32 positions) were reserved for control characters.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980p. 220, Decisions 8,9">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p. 220, Decisions 8,9.</ref> The [[Space (punctuation)|"space" character]] had to come before graphics to make [[sorting algorithm|sorting]] easier, so it became position 20_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]};<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980p. 237, Decision 10">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p. 237, Decision 10.</ref> for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support [[upper case]] [[sixbit code pages|64-character alphabets]], and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980p. 228, Decision 14">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p. 228, Decision 14.</ref> [[Lower case]] letters were therefore not interleaved with upper case. To keep options available for lower case letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter "A" was placed in position 41_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]} to match the draft of the corresponding British standard.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980p. 238, Decision 18">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p. 238, Decision 18.</ref> The digits 0–9 were arranged so they correspond to values in binary prefixed with 011, making conversion with [[binary-coded decimal]] straightforward. Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters. Thus #, $ and % were placed to correspond to 3, 4, and 5 in the adjacent column. The parentheses could not correspond to 9 and 0, however, because the place corresponding to 0 was taken by the space character. Since many European typewriters placed the parentheses with 8 and 9, those corresponding positions were chosen for the parentheses. The @ symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented À in the French variation, so the @ was placed in position 40_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]} next to the letter A.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980243">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p.&nbsp;243.</ref> The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), [[End of Message|end of message]] (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), "who are you?" (WRU), "are you?" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the [[Hamming distance]] between their bit patterns.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980243-245">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], pp.&nbsp;243-245.</ref> With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie198066, 245">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], pp.&nbsp;66, 245.</ref> There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lower case alphabet.<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980435">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p.&nbsp;435.</ref> The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lower case characters to columns 6 and 7,<ref>Brief Report: Meeting of CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet, May 13–15, 1963.</ref> and [[International Organization for Standardization]] TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard.<ref>Report of ISO/TC/97/SC 2 – Meeting of October 29–31, 1963.</ref> The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting.<ref>Report on Task Group X3.2.4, June 11, 1963, Pentagon Building, Washington, DC.</ref> Locating the lowercase letters in columns 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified [[case-insensitive]] character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers. The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters (the [[bracket|brace]] and [[vertical bar]] characters),<ref>Report of Meeting No. 8, Task Group X3.2.4, December 17 and 18, 1963</ref> renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed).<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980247–248">[[#CITEREFMackenzie1980|Mackenzie 1980]], p.&nbsp;247–248.</ref> ASCII was subsequently updated as USASI X3.4-1967, then USASI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986 (the first two are occasionally retronamed ANSI X3.4-1967, and ANSI X3.4-1968). The X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted ([[least significant bit]] first), and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a [[9-track]] standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some forms of [[punched card]] formats. ASCII itself was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for [[American Telephone & Telegraph]]'s TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit [[Baudot code]], which was also used by the competing [[Telex]] teleprinter system. [[Bob Bemer]] introduced features such as the [[Escape character|escape sequence]].<ref name="Brandel" /> His British colleague [[Hugh McGregor Ross]] helped to popularize this work—according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the Bemer-Ross Code in Europe".<ref>Bob Bemer (n.d.). [http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/EUROPE.HTM Bemer meets Europe]. ''Trailing-edge.com''. Accessed 2008-04-14. Employed at [[IBM]] at that time</ref> Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII."<ref name="thocp">{{cite web |url=http://www.thocp.net/biographies/bemer_bob.htm |title=Biography of Robert William Bemer}}</ref> <!-- "The endorsement of the Federal government, then the largest purchaser of computer equipment, was probably the single most important reason for the subsequent wide adoption of ASCII." – Martha M. Gray [http://csrc.nist.gov/fips/fips1861.pdf]. /* ?? */ --> On March 11, 1968, U.S. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] mandated that all computers purchased by the United States federal government support ASCII, stating:<ref>Lyndon B. Johnson (March 11, 1968). [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=28724 Memorandum Approving the Adoption by the Federal Government of a Standard Code for Information Interchange]. ''The American Presidency Project''. Accessed 2008-04-14.</ref> <blockquote>I have also approved recommendations of the [[Secretary of Commerce]] regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the [[Federal Government]] inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.</blockquote> Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as [[ISO/IEC 646]] that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English [[alphabet]] and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's [[pound sterling]] (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the USA and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters. Other adapted encodings include [[ISCII]] (India), [[VISCII]] (Vietnam), and [[YUSCII]] (Yugoslavia). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard. ASCII was incorporated into the [[Unicode]] character set as the first 128 symbols, so the ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows [[UTF-8]] to be [[Backward compatibility|backward compatible]] with ASCII, allowing software that handles UTF-8 data to treat ASCII data as UTF-8 data, and software made for ASCII treat UTF-8 data as ASCII data, rather than distinguishing between ASCII and UTF-8. ==ASCII control characters== {{main|Control character}} ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for [[control character]]s: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as [[computer printer|printer]]s) that make use of ASCII, or to provide [[Metadata|meta-information]] about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". RFC 2822 refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or [[Whitespace (computer science)|white space]] as non-whitespace control characters.<ref>RFC 2822 (April 2001). "NO-WS-CTL".</ref> Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as [[markup language]]s, address page and document layout and formatting. The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a [[data stream]], and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of "delete". Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the [[Teletype Model 33]] ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available [[punched tape|paper tape]] reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 ([[Delete key|Delete]]) became de facto standards. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of [[underscore]]), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected. The use of Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off) as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow, and Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") to resume sending, persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. Code 127 is officially named "delete" but the Teletype label was "rubout". Since the original standard did not give detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning, and the intent of the standard, was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL (all zeroes). This was useful specifically for paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it. Tapes designed to be "hand edited" could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs (blank tape) so that a block of characters could be "rubbed out" and then replacements put into the empty space. As video terminals began to replace printing ones, the value of the "rubout" character was lost. DEC systems, for example, interpreted "Delete" to mean "remove the character before the cursor" and this interpretation also became common in Unix systems. Most other systems used "Backspace" for that meaning and used "Delete" to mean "remove the character at the cursor". That latter interpretation is the most common now. Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, [[C (programming language)|C language]] strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, usually in the form of a so-called "[[ANSI escape code]]" (or, more properly, a "Control Sequence Introducer") beginning with ESC followed by a "<nowiki>[</nowiki>" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an [[out-of-band data|out-of-band]] character used to terminate an operation, as in the [[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] and [[vi]] [[text editor]]s. In [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) and [[window (computing)|windowing]] systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to [[exit (operating system)|exit]] (terminate) altogether. The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the [[newline]] problem on various [[operating system]]s. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual [[typewriter]] the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line. [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] operating systems ([[OS/8]], [[RT-11]], [[RSX-11]], [[RSTS/E|RSTS]], [[TOPS-10]], etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally [[Teleprinter|Teletype machines]]) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall cloned [[RT-11]] to create [[CP/M]] he followed established [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] convention. Until the introduction of [[PC DOS]] in 1981, [[IBM]] had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of "carriage return" was meaningless. IBM's [[PC DOS]] (also marketed as [[MS-DOS]] by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being a clone of [[CP/M]], and [[Windows]] inherited it from MS-DOS. Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters [[plain text]] data streams, including files, on [[Multics]]<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.multicians.org/jhs-jfo-terminals.pdf |title=Technical and human engineering problems in connecting terminals to a time-sharing system |last1=Ossanna |first1=J. F. |authorlink1=Joe Ossanna |last2=Saltzer |first2=J. H. |authorlink2=Jerry Saltzer |date=November 17–19, 1970 |publisher=[[AFIPS]] Press |booktitle=Proceedings of the November 17–19, 1970, Fall Joint Computer Conference |pages=355–362 |location=p. 357 |quote=Using a "new-line" function (combined carriage-return and line-feed) is simpler for both man and machine than requiring both functions for starting a new line; the American National Standard X3.4-19687 permits the line-feed code to carry the new-line meaning.}}</ref> used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] systems, and [[Amiga]] systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original [[Macintosh OS]], [[Apple DOS]], and [[ProDOS]], on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced it with the Unix-based [[OS X]] operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. Computers attached to the [[ARPANET]] included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and [[TOPS-20#TENEX|TENEX]] using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as [[OS/360]] that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used [[EBCDIC]] rather than ASCII. The [[Telnet]] protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network; it used ASCII, along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT.<ref>{{cite IETF|title=TELNET Protocol|rfc=158|pages=4-5|author=T. O'Sullivan|date=May 19, 1971|publisher =[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]|accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> The [[File Transfer Protocol]] adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode.<ref>{{cite IETF|title=File Transfer Protocol|rfc=542|author=Nancy J. Neigus|date=Aug 12, 1973|publisher =[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]|accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite IETF|title=File Transfer Protocol|rfc=765|author=[[Jon Postel]]|date=June 1980|publisher =[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]|accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for [[E-mail]] and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.<ref>[http://mercurial.selenic.com/wiki/EOLTranslationPlan EOL translation plan for Mercurial]</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bare LFs in SMTP |url=http://cr.yp.to/docs/smtplf.html |author=[[Daniel J. Bernstein]] |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> Older operating systems such as TOPS-10, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z (SUB) to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For this reason, EOF, or [[end-of-file]], was used colloquially and conventionally as a [[three-letter acronym]] (TLA) for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. For a variety of reasons, the end-of-text code, [[End-of-text character|ETX]] aka [[Control-C]], was inappropriate and using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet, a very convenient [[Mnemonic device|mnemonic aid]]. An historic common, and still prevalent, convention uses the [[End-of-text character|ETX]] aka [[Control-C]] code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard. In C library and [[Unix]] conventions, the [[null character]] is used to terminate text [[string (computer science)|string]]s; such [[null-terminated string]]s can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for "zero". ===ASCII control code chart=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- ! Binary !! Oct !! Dec !! Hex !! Abbr !! <ref group="lower-alpha">The [[Unicode]] characters from the area U+2400 to U+2421 reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function. Some browsers may not display these properly.</ref> !! <ref group="lower-alpha">[[Caret notation]] often used to represent control characters on a terminal. On most text terminals, holding down the {{keypress|[[Control key|Ctrl]]}} key while typing the second character will type the control character. Sometimes the shift key is not needed, for instance <tt>^@</tt> may be typable with just Ctrl and 2.</ref> !! <ref group="lower-alpha">Character Escape Codes in [[C (programming language)|C programming language]] and many other languages influenced by it, such as [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[Perl]] (though not all implementations necessarily support all escape codes).</ref> !! Name |- | 000 0000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 000 || style="background:#CFF;" | 0 || style="background:lightblue;" | 00 | NUL || style="font-size:large;" | ␀ || <tt>[[^@]]</tt> || <tt>[[\0]]</tt> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Null character]] |- | 000 0001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 001 || style="background:#CFF;" | 1 || style="background:lightblue;" | 01 | SOH || style="font-size:large;" | ␁ || <tt>[[^A]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Start-of-Header|Start of Header]] |- | 000 0010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 002 || style="background:#CFF;" | 2 || style="background:lightblue;" | 02 | STX || style="font-size:large;" | ␂ || <tt>[[^B]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Start Of Text|Start of Text]] |- | 000 0011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 003 || style="background:#CFF;" | 3 || style="background:lightblue;" | 03 | ETX || style="font-size:large;" | ␃ || <tt>[[^C]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End-of-text character|End of Text]] |- | 000 0100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 004 || style="background:#CFF;" | 4 || style="background:lightblue;" | 04 <!-- Please note that the character below, U+2404, is correct. If you are seeing it as "ENQ", please upgrade your fonts as the one you have is buggy. --> | EOT || style="font-size:large;" | ␄ || <tt>[[^D]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End-of-transmission character|End of Transmission]] |- | 000 0101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 005 || style="background:#CFF;" | 5 || style="background:lightblue;" | 05 <!-- Please note that the character below, U+2405, is correct. If you are seeing it as "EOT", please upgrade your fonts as the one you have is buggy. --> | ENQ || style="font-size:large;" | ␅ || <tt>[[^E]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Enquiry character|Enquiry]] |- | 000 0110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 006 || style="background:#CFF;" | 6 || style="background:lightblue;" | 06 | ACK || style="font-size:large;" | ␆ || <tt>[[^F]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Acknowledge character|Acknowledgment]] |- | 000 0111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 007 || style="background:#CFF;" | 7 || style="background:lightblue;" | 07 | BEL || style="font-size:large;" | ␇ || <tt>[[^G]]</tt> || <tt>[[\a]]</tt> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Bell character|Bell]] |- | 000 1000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 010 || style="background:#CFF;" | 8 || style="background:lightblue;" | 08 | BS || style="font-size:large;" | ␈ || <tt>[[^H]]</tt> || <tt>[[Backspace|\b]]</tt> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Backspace]]<ref group="lower-alpha">The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Backspace}} key on some systems.</ref><ref group="lower-alpha" name="bsp del mismatch"/> |- | 000 1001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 011 || style="background:#CFF;" | 9 || style="background:lightblue;" | 09 | HT || style="font-size:large;" | ␉ || <tt>[[^I]]</tt> || <tt>[[\t]]</tt> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Horizontal Tab]]<ref group="lower-alpha">The Tab character can also be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Tab}} key on most systems.</ref> |- | 000 1010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 012 || style="background:#CFF;" | 10 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0A | LF || style="font-size:large;" | ␊ || <tt>[[^J]]</tt> || <tt>[[\n]]</tt> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Line feed]] |- | 000 1011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 013 || style="background:#CFF;" | 11 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0B | VT || style="font-size:large;" | ␋ || <tt>[[^K]]</tt> || <tt>[[\v]]</tt> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Vertical Tab]] |- | 000 1100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 014 || style="background:#CFF;" | 12 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0C | FF || style="font-size:large;" | ␌ || <tt>[[^L]]</tt> || <tt>[[\f]]</tt> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Form feed]] |- | 000 1101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 015 || style="background:#CFF;" | 13 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0D | CR || style="font-size:large;" | ␍ || <tt>[[^M]]</tt> || <tt>[[\r]]</tt> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Carriage return]]<ref group="lower-alpha">The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Enter}} or {{keypress|Return}} key on most systems.</ref> |- | 000 1110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 016 || style="background:#CFF;" | 14 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0E | SO || style="font-size:large;" | ␎ || <tt>[[^N]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift Out]] |- | 000 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 017 || style="background:#CFF;" | 15 || style="background:lightblue;" | 0F | SI || style="font-size:large;" | ␏ || <tt>[[^O]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift In]] |- | 001 0000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 020 || style="background:#CFF;" | 16 || style="background:lightblue;" | 10 | DLE || style="font-size:large;" | ␐ || <tt>[[^P]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Data Link Escape]] |- | 001 0001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 021 || style="background:#CFF;" | 17 || style="background:lightblue;" | 11 | DC1 || style="font-size:large;" | ␑ || <tt>[[^Q]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Device Control 1]] (oft. [[XON]]) |- | 001 0010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 022 || style="background:#CFF;" | 18 || style="background:lightblue;" | 12 | DC2 || style="font-size:large;" | ␒ || <tt>[[^R]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | Device Control 2 |- | 001 0011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 023 || style="background:#CFF;" | 19 || style="background:lightblue;" | 13 | DC3 || style="font-size:large;" | ␓ || <tt>[[^S]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | Device Control 3 (oft. [[XOFF]]) |- | 001 0100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 024 || style="background:#CFF;" | 20 || style="background:lightblue;" | 14 | DC4 || style="font-size:large;" | ␔ || <tt>[[^T]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | Device Control 4 |- | 001 0101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 025 || style="background:#CFF;" | 21 || style="background:lightblue;" | 15 | NAK || style="font-size:large;" | ␕ || <tt>[[^U]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Negative-acknowledge character|Negative Acknowledgment]] |- | 001 0110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 026 || style="background:#CFF;" | 22 || style="background:lightblue;" | 16 | SYN || style="font-size:large;" | ␖ || <tt>[[^V]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Synchronous idle]] |- | 001 0111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 027 || style="background:#CFF;" | 23 || style="background:lightblue;" | 17 | ETB || style="font-size:large;" | ␗ || <tt>[[^W]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End Transmission Block character|End of Transmission Block]] |- | 001 1000 || style="background:lightblue;" | 030 || style="background:#CFF;" | 24 || style="background:lightblue;" | 18 | CAN || style="font-size:large;" | ␘ || <tt>[[^X]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Cancel character|Cancel]] |- | 001 1001 || style="background:lightblue;" | 031 || style="background:#CFF;" | 25 || style="background:lightblue;" | 19 | EM || style="font-size:large;" | ␙ || <tt>[[^Y]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[End of Medium]] |- | 001 1010 || style="background:lightblue;" | 032 || style="background:#CFF;" | 26 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1A | SUB || style="font-size:large;" | ␚ || <tt>[[^Z]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Substitute character|Substitute]] |- | 001 1011 || style="background:lightblue;" | 033 || style="background:#CFF;" | 27 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1B | ESC || style="font-size:large;" | ␛ || <tt>^<nowiki>[</nowiki></tt> || <tt>[[\e]]</tt><ref group="lower-alpha">The '<tt>\e</tt>' escape sequence is not part of ISO C and many other language specifications. However, it is understood by several compilers, including [[GCC (software)|GCC]].</ref> || style="text-align:left;" | [[Escape character|Escape]]<ref group="lower-alpha">The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Esc}} key on some systems.</ref> |- | 001 1100 || style="background:lightblue;" | 034 || style="background:#CFF;" | 28 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1C | FS || style="font-size:large;" | ␜ || <tt>[[^\]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[File separator|File Separator]] |- | 001 1101 || style="background:lightblue;" | 035 || style="background:#CFF;" | 29 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1D | GS || style="font-size:large;" | ␝ || <tt>^<nowiki>]</nowiki></tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Group separator|Group Separator]] |- | 001 1110 || style="background:lightblue;" | 036 || style="background:#CFF;" | 30 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1E | RS || style="font-size:large;" | ␞ || <tt>^^</tt><ref group="lower-alpha">^^ means {{keypress|Ctrl|^}} (pressing the "Ctrl" and caret keys).</ref> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Record separator|Record Separator]] |- | 001 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 037 || style="background:#CFF;" | 31 || style="background:lightblue;" | 1F | US || style="font-size:large;" | ␟ || <tt>^_</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Unit separator|Unit Separator]] |- | colspan="9" | |- | 111 1111 || style="background:lightblue;" | 177 || style="background:#CFF;" | 127 || style="background:lightblue;" | 7F | DEL || style="font-size:large;" | ␡ || <tt>[[^?]]</tt> || || style="text-align:left;" | [[Delete character|Delete]]<ref group="lower-alpha">The Delete character can sometimes be entered by pressing the {{keypress|Backspace}} key on some systems.</ref><ref group="lower-alpha" name="bsp del mismatch">The ambiguity of Backspace is due to early terminals designed assuming the main use of the keyboard would be to manually punch paper tape while not connected to a computer. To delete the previous character, one had to back up the paper tape punch, which for mechanical and simplicity reasons was a button on the punch itself and not the keyboard, then type the rubout character. They therefore placed a key producing rubout at the location used on typewriters for backspace. When systems used these terminals and provided command-line editing, they had to use the "rubout" code to perform a backspace, and often did not interpret the backspace character (they might echo "<tt>^H</tt>" for backspace). Other terminals not designed for paper tape made the key at this location produce Backspace, and systems designed for these used that character to back up. Since the delete code often produced a backspace effect, this also forced terminal manufacturers to make any {{keypress|Delete}} key produce something other than the Delete character.</ref> |} {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example [[ISO 2047]] graphics or [[hexadecimal]] numbers. ==ASCII printable characters== <!-- Section header linked to from redirects --> Codes 20_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]} to 7E_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]}, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, [[punctuation marks]], and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total. Code 20_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]}, the [[Space (punctuation)|space character]], denotes the space between words, as produced by the space-bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character)<ref name="FOOTNOTEMackenzie1980223" /><ref name="RFC20_1968" /> and thus would not normally be visible, it is represented here by [[Unicode]] character U+2420 "␠"; Unicode characters U+2422 "␢" and U+2423 "␣" are also available for use when a visible representation of a space is necessary. Code 7F_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]} corresponds to the non-printable "Delete" (DEL) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up-arrow instead of the [[caret]] (5E_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]}) and the left-arrow instead of the [[underscore]] (5F_{[[hexadecimal|hex]]}).<ref>[http://www.wps.com/projects/codes/X3.4-1963/index.html ASA X3.4-1963].</ref> Character List: !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~ {| style="background:none; text-align:center;" |- style="vertical-align:top;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- !Binary !! Oct !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph |- |010 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 040 || style="background:#cff;"| 32 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 20 || [[space (punctuation)| ]] |- |010 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 041 || style="background:#cff;"| 33 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 21 || [[Exclamation mark|!]] |- |010 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 042 || style="background:#cff;"| 34 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 22 || [[Quotation mark|"]] |- |010 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 043 || style="background:#cff;"| 35 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 23 || [[Number sign|#]] |- |010 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 044 || style="background:#cff;"| 36 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 24 || [[Dollar sign|$]] |- |010 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 045 || style="background:#cff;"| 37 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 25 || [[Percent sign|%]] |- |010 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 046 || style="background:#cff;"| 38 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 26 || [[Ampersand|&]] |- |010 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 047 || style="background:#cff;"| 39 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 27 || [[apostrophe|']] |- |010 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 050 || style="background:#cff;"| 40 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 28 || [[Parentheses|(]] |- |010 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 051 || style="background:#cff;"| 41 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 29 || [[Parentheses|)]] |- |010 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 052 || style="background:#cff;"| 42 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2A || [[Asterisk|*]] |- |010 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 053 || style="background:#cff;"| 43 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2B || [[Plus sign|+]] |- |010 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 054 || style="background:#cff;"| 44 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2C || [[Comma|,]] |- |010 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 055 || style="background:#cff;"| 45 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2D || [[Hyphen-minus|-]] |- |010 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 056 || style="background:#cff;"| 46 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2E || [[Full stop|.]] |- |010 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 057 || style="background:#cff;"| 47 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 2F || [[Slash (punctuation)|/]] |- |011 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 060 || style="background:#cff;"| 48 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 30 || [[0 (number)|0]] |- |011 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 061 || style="background:#cff;"| 49 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 31 || [[1 (number)|1]] |- |011 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 062 || style="background:#cff;"| 50 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 32 || [[2 (number)|2]] |- |011 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 063 || style="background:#cff;"| 51 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 33 || [[3 (number)|3]] |- |011 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 064 || style="background:#cff;"| 52 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 34 || [[4 (number)|4]] |- |011 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 065 || style="background:#cff;"| 53 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 35 || [[5 (number)|5]] |- |011 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 066 || style="background:#cff;"| 54 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 36 || [[6 (number)|6]] |- |011 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 067 || style="background:#cff;"| 55 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 37 || [[7 (number)|7]] |- |011 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 070 || style="background:#cff;"| 56 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 38 || [[8 (number)|8]] |- |011 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 071 || style="background:#cff;"| 57 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 39 || [[9 (number)|9]] |- |011 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 072 || style="background:#cff;"| 58 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3A || [[Colon (punctuation)|:]] |- |011 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 073 || style="background:#cff;"| 59 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3B || [[Semicolon|;]] |- |011 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 074 || style="background:#cff;"| 60 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3C || [[Less-than sign|<]] |- |011 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 075 || style="background:#cff;"| 61 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3D || [[Equals sign|=]] |- |011 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 076 || style="background:#cff;"| 62 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3E || [[Greater-than sign|>]] |- |011 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 077 || style="background:#cff;"| 63 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 3F || [[Question mark|?]] |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" !Binary !! Oct !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph |- |100 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 100 || style="background:#cff;"| 64 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 40 || [[At sign|@]] |- |100 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 101 || style="background:#cff;"| 65 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 41 || [[A]] |- |100 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 102 || style="background:#cff;"| 66 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 42 || [[B]] |- |100 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 103 || style="background:#cff;"| 67 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 43 || [[C]] |- |100 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 104 || style="background:#cff;"| 68 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 44 || [[D]] |- |100 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 105 || style="background:#cff;"| 69 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 45 || [[E]] |- |100 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 106 || style="background:#cff;"| 70 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 46 || [[F]] |- |100 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 107 || style="background:#cff;"| 71 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 47 || [[G]] |- |100 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 110 || style="background:#cff;"| 72 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 48 || [[H]] |- |100 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 111 || style="background:#cff;"| 73 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 49 || [[I]] |- |100 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 112 || style="background:#cff;"| 74 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4A || [[J]] |- |100 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 113 || style="background:#cff;"| 75 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4B || [[K]] |- |100 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 114 || style="background:#cff;"| 76 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4C || [[L]] |- |100 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 115 || style="background:#cff;"| 77 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4D || [[M]] |- |100 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 116 || style="background:#cff;"| 78 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4E || [[N]] |- |100 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 117 || style="background:#cff;"| 79 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 4F || [[O]] |- |101 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 120 || style="background:#cff;"| 80 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 50 || [[P]] |- |101 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 121 || style="background:#cff;"| 81 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 51 || [[Q]] |- |101 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 122 || style="background:#cff;"| 82 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 52 || [[R]] |- |101 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 123 || style="background:#cff;"| 83 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 53 || [[S]] |- |101 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 124 || style="background:#cff;"| 84 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 54 || [[T]] |- |101 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 125 || style="background:#cff;"| 85 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 55 || [[U]] |- |101 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 126 || style="background:#cff;"| 86 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 56 || [[V]] |- |101 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 127 || style="background:#cff;"| 87 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 57 || [[W]] |- |101 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 130 || style="background:#cff;"| 88 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 58 || [[X]] |- |101 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 131 || style="background:#cff;"| 89 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 59 || [[Y]] |- |101 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 132 || style="background:#cff;"| 90 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5A || [[Z]] |- |101 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 133 || style="background:#cff;"| 91 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5B || [[Square brackets|<nowiki>[</nowiki>]] |- |101 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 134 || style="background:#cff;"| 92 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5C || [[Backslash|\]] |- |101 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 135 || style="background:#cff;"| 93 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5D || [[Square brackets|<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] |- |101 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 136 || style="background:#cff;"| 94 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5E || [[Caret|^]] |- |101 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 137 || style="background:#cff;"| 95 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 5F || [[Underscore|_]] |} | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" !Binary !! Oct !! Dec !! Hex !! Glyph |- |110 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 140 || style="background:#cff;"| 96 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 60 || [[Grave accent|`]] |- |110 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 141 || style="background:#cff;"| 97 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 61 || [[a]] |- |110 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 142 || style="background:#cff;"| 98 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 62 || [[b]] |- |110 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 143 || style="background:#cff;"| 99 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 63 || [[c]] |- |110 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 144 || style="background:#cff;"| 100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 64 || [[d]] |- |110 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 145 || style="background:#cff;"| 101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 65 || [[e]] |- |110 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 146 || style="background:#cff;"| 102 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 66 || [[f]] |- |110 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 147 || style="background:#cff;"| 103 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 67 || [[g]] |- |110 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 150 || style="background:#cff;"| 104 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 68 || [[h]] |- |110 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 151 || style="background:#cff;"| 105 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 69 || [[i]] |- |110 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 152 || style="background:#cff;"| 106 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6A || [[j]] |- |110 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 153 || style="background:#cff;"| 107 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6B || [[k]] |- |110 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 154 || style="background:#cff;"| 108 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6C || [[l]] |- |110 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 155 || style="background:#cff;"| 109 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6D || [[m]] |- |110 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 156 || style="background:#cff;"| 110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6E || [[n]] |- |110 1111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 157 || style="background:#cff;"| 111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 6F || [[o]] |- |111 0000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 160 || style="background:#cff;"| 112 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 70 || [[p]] |- |111 0001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 161 || style="background:#cff;"| 113 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 71 || [[q]] |- |111 0010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 162 || style="background:#cff;"| 114 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 72 || [[r]] |- |111 0011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 163 || style="background:#cff;"| 115 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 73 || [[s]] |- |111 0100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 164 || style="background:#cff;"| 116 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 74 || [[t]] |- |111 0101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 165 || style="background:#cff;"| 117 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 75 || [[u]] |- |111 0110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 166 || style="background:#cff;"| 118 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 76 || [[v]] |- |111 0111 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 167 || style="background:#cff;"| 119 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 77 || [[w]] |- |111 1000 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 170 || style="background:#cff;"| 120 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 78 || [[x]] |- |111 1001 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 171 || style="background:#cff;"| 121 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 79 || [[y]] |- |111 1010 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 172 || style="background:#cff;"| 122 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7A || [[z]] |- |111 1011 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 173 || style="background:#cff;"| 123 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7B || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|{]] |- |111 1100 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 174 || style="background:#cff;"| 124 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7C || [[Vertical bar|&#124;]] |- |111 1101 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 175 || style="background:#cff;"| 125 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7D || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|}]] |- |111 1110 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 176 || style="background:#cff;"| 126 ||style="background:lightblue;"| 7E || [[Tilde|~]] |} |} ==Aliases== A June 1992 RFC<ref>RFC 1345 (June 1992).</ref> and the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] registry of character sets<ref name="IANA" /> recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet:<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name) * iso-ir-6 * ANSI_X3.4-1986 * ISO_646.irv:1991 * ASCII **(with ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 variants){{failed verification|date=September 2013}} * ISO646-US * US-ASCII (preferred [[MIME]] name)<ref name="IANA">Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (May 14, 2007). "[http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character Sets]". Accessed 2008-04-14.</ref> * us * IBM367 * cp367 * csASCII </div> Of these, the IANA encourages use of the name "US-ASCII" for Internet uses of ASCII (even if it is a [[RAS syndrome|redundant acronym]], but the US is needed because of abuse of the ASCII term). One often finds this in the optional "charset" parameter in the Content-Type header of some MIME messages, in the equivalent "meta" element of some [[HTML]] documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prologue of some [[XML]] documents. ==Variants== As computer technology spread throughout the world, different [[Standardization|standards bodies]] and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "[[Extended ASCII|ASCII extensions]]", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. The [[PETSCII]] code [[Commodore International]] used for their [[8-bit]] systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the [[ZX Spectrum character set|ZX Spectrum]] computer. [[ATASCII|Atari]] 8-bit computers and [[Galaksija (computer)#Character ROM|Galaksija]] computers also used ASCII variants. ===7-bit=== From early in its development,<ref>"Specific Criteria," attachment to memo from R. W. Reach, "X3-2 Meeting – September 14 and 15," September 18, 1961</ref> ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard, ultimately published as [[ISO/IEC 646]] (1972), which would share most characters in common but assign other locally useful characters to several [[code point]]s reserved for "national use." However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967<ref>R. Maréchal, ISO/TC 97 – Computers and Information Processing: Acceptance of Draft ISO Recommendation No. 1052, December 22, 1967</ref> caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points. ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, was a 7-bit character set. It did not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and therefore which character a code represented, and in general text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway. Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as :<code>ä aÄiÜ='Ön'; ü</code> instead of :<code>{ a[i]='\n'; }</code> [[C trigraph]]s were created to solve this problem for [[ANSI C]], although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, instead plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (e.g. in e-mail, [[Usenet]]) contained {, } and more in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. ===8-bit=== Eventually, as 8-, [[16-bit|16-]] and [[32-bit]] (and later [[64-bit]]) computers began to replace [[18-bit|18-]] and [[36-bit]] computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit, relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters. Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0-31 with more graphics. The IBM PC defined [[code page 437]], which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as [[Emoticon|smiley faces]], and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as [[DOS]] supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of [[IBM PC]]s supported them in hardware. [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] developed the [[Multinational Character Set]] (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular [[VT220]] [[computer terminal|terminal]], this was one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined [[Mac OS Roman]] and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets. The [[ISO/IEC 8859]] standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, [[Windows-1252]] (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until the late 2000s, when [[UTF-8]] became more common.<ref name="utf-8-2008" /> ===Unicode=== [[Unicode]] and the ISO/IEC 10646 [[Universal Character Set]] (UCS) have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using [[natural number]]s called ''code points'') and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called [[UTF-8]], [[UTF-16]] and [[UTF-32]]). To allow backward compatibility, the 128 ASCII and 256 ISO-8859-1 (Latin 1) characters are assigned Unicode/UCS code points that are the same as their codes in the earlier standards. Therefore, ASCII can be considered a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode/UCS, and ASCII (when prefixed with 0 as the eighth bit) is valid UTF-8. ==Order== ASCII-code order is also called ''ASCIIbetical'' order.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=ASCIIbetical&i=38025,00.asp |title=ASCIIbetical definition |magazine=[[PC Magazine]] |accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref> [[Collation]] of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order ([[collating sequence]]). The main deviations in ASCII order are: * All uppercase come before lowercase letters, for example, "Z" before "a" * Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters; for example, "4" precedes "one" * Numbers are sorted naïvely as strings; for example, "10" precedes "2" An intermediate order—readily implemented—converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values. Naïve number sorting can be averted by [[Leading zero|zero-filling]] all numbers (e.g. "02" will sort before "10" as expected), although this is an external fix and has nothing to do with the ordering itself. ==See also== * [[3568 ASCII]], an asteroid named after the character encoding * [[ASCII art]] * [[ASCII Ribbon Campaign]] * [[Extended ASCII]] * [[HTML decimal character rendering]] ==References== {{Citation style|date=February 2013|details=One consistent form of citation must be used; currently, two mixed forms are being used}} ;Footnotes {{Reflist|30em}} ;Bibliography * {{cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Charles E. |title=Coded Character Sets, History and Development |year=1980 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=0-201-14460-3 |ref=harv}} ==Further reading== <!--I'm adding some additional resources here, both for the benefit of readers, and for use in providing inline citations for currently uncited items, above. This stems from the article's current Featured Article Review. --> {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal |authorlink=Bob Bemer |first=R. W. |last=Bemer |title=A Proposal for Character Code Compatibility |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=3 |issue=2 |year=1960 |pages=71–72 |doi=10.1145/366959.366961}} * {{cite web |first=R. W |last=Bemer |url=http://www.trailing-edge.com/~bobbemer/SURVEY.HTM |title=The Babel of Codes Prior to ASCII: The 1960 Survey of Coded Character Sets: The Reasons for ASCII |date=May 23, 2003}} from: ** {{cite journal |first=R. W. |last=Bemer |title=Survey of coded character representation |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=639–641 |date=December 1960 |doi=10.1145/367487.367493}} ** {{cite journal |first1=H. J. |last1=Smith |first2=F. A. |last2=Williams |title=Survey of punched card codes |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=3 |issue=12 |page=642 |date=December 1960 |doi=10.1145/367487.367491}} * {{cite journal |title=History and impact of computer standards |first=G. S. |last=Robinson |lastauthoramp=yes |first2=C. |last2=Cargill |journal=[[Computer (magazine)|Computer]] |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=79–85 |year=1996 |doi=10.1109/2.539725}} * {{cite book |title=American National Standard Code for Information Interchange |publisher=American National Standards Institute |year=1977}} {{Refend}} ==External links== <!--===========================(PLEASE NOTE)=============================== | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA | | IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS NOR SHOULD IT BE USED FOR ADVERTISING. | | | | This article already contains ASCII code charts, therefore any link | | to such a chart does not pass [[WP:ELNO]] #1 and WILL BE DELETED. | | | | This article is not about so-called "extended ASCII", therefore any | | link to a page about "extended ASCII" is not relevant and WILL BE | | DELETED. | | | | "ASCII converters" are a dime a dozen, so choosing any one would be | | linkspam for that site. All such links WILL BE DELETED. Add them to | | the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) instead. | | | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | ===========================(PLEASE NOTE)===============================--> * [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf The ASCII subset] of [[Unicode]] * {{cite web|title=The Evolution of Character Codes, 1874-1968|first1=Eric|last1=Fischer|url=http://www2.units.it/hirema/didattica/materiali/charset/ASCII/ascii.pdf}} * [http://wps.com/projects/codes/X3.4-1963/index.html Scanned copy of American Standard Code for Information Interchange ASA standard X3.4-1963] {{character encoding}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ascii}} [[Category:ASCII]] {{Link FA|es}} 5s61k4alm6izmfsrpmdjspvi6skwxiv wikitext text/x-wiki 0 589 290580331 289167048 2009-05-17T20:43:54Z Erik9bot 8889502 [[WP:RBK|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Erik9bot|Erik9bot]] ([[User talk:Erik9bot|talk]]) to last version by Closedmouth #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]{{R from other capitalisation}} sct6r17itfol5e4evppwlfu78ky8pxd wikitext text/x-wiki 0 590 598191714 597000640 2014-03-05T01:06:45Z 64.134.130.11 suggesting addition of article for Austin, Washington. I need to know what county many US cities are in. User_Talk:MichaelCrawford {{wiktionary|Austin}} '''Austin''' is an English language contracted form of [[Augustine (given name)|Augustine]]. '''Austin''' may refer to: {{TOC right}} ==Geographical locations== ===In the United States=== *[[Austin, Arkansas]] *[[Austin, Colorado]] * Austin, Illinois: ** [[Austin Township, Macon County, Illinois]] **[[Austin, Chicago]], Cook County, Illinois *[[Austin, Indiana]] *[[Austin, Kentucky]] *[[Austin, Minnesota]] *[[Austin, Nevada]] *[[Austin, Oregon]] *[[Austin, Texas]], the capital of the U.S. state of Texas. *[[Austin County, Texas]] (note that the city of Austin is located in Travis County) *[[Austin, Washington]] ===In Canada=== *[[Austin, Manitoba]] *[[Austin, Ontario]] *[[Austin, Quebec]] *[[Austin Island]], Nunavut ===In Australia=== *[[Austin, Western Australia]] ==People== *[[Austin (name)]] ==Schools== *[[Austin College]], Sherman, Texas *[[University of Texas at Austin]], flagship institution of the University of Texas System *[[Austin Peay State University]], Clarksville, Tennessee ==Religion== *[[Augustine of Hippo]] or [[Augustine of Canterbury]] *An adjective for the [[Augustinians]] ==Business== *[[Austin Automobile Company]], short-lived American automobile company *[[Austin (brand)]], a brand owned by the Kellogg Company *[[Austin Motor Company]], British car manufacturer *[[American Austin Car Company]], short-lived American automobile maker ==Entertainment== *[[Austin (song)|"Austin" (song)]], a single by Blake Shelton *Austin, a kangaroo [[Beanie Baby]] produced by Ty, Inc. *Austin the kangaroo from the children's television series ''[[The Backyardigans]]'' ==Other uses== *[[USS Austin|USS ''Austin'']], three ships *[[Austin Station (disambiguation)]], various public transportation stations ==See also== *[[Austen (disambiguation)]] *[[Augustine (disambiguation)]] *[[Special:Prefixindex/Austin|All pages beginning with Austin]] {{disambiguation|geo}} 8bsogit5xwwnke39xy6fa7yt8p28rjy wikitext text/x-wiki 0 592 290580329 289167057 2009-05-17T20:43:53Z Erik9bot 8889502 [[WP:RBK|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Erik9bot|Erik9bot]] ([[User talk:Erik9bot|talk]]) to last version by Closedmouth #REDIRECT [[ASCII art]]{{R from other capitalisation}} nz00qml11pvljm1mq1t83cur4hyji49 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 593 601042089 601036646 2014-03-24T15:11:52Z Gaius Cornelius 293907 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/82.43.7.214|82.43.7.214]] ([[User talk:82.43.7.214|talk]]) to last version by Jim1138 {{other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} '''Animation''' is the process of creating a continuous [[Motion (physics)|motion]] and shape change{{#tag:ref|With the "[[squash and stretch]]" principle often applied in case of [[character animation]].|group=Note}} [[illusion]] by means of the rapid display of a sequence of static images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion&mdash;as in motion pictures in general&mdash;is thought to rely on the [[phi phenomenon]]. <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 262px;"> [[File:Animexample3edit.png]] <div class="thumbcaption">The bouncing ball animation (below) consists of these six frames.</div> [[File:Animexample.gif]] <div class="thumbcaption">This animation moves at 10 frames per second.</div> </div> </div> Animations can be [[Recording|recorded]] on either analogue media, such as a [[flip book]], [[motion picture film]], video tape, or on [[digital media]], including formats such as [[animated GIF]], [[Flash animation]] or digital video. To display it, a [[digital camera]], computer, or [[Image projector|projector]] are used. Animation creation methods include the [[traditional animation]] creation method and those involving [[stop motion animation]] of two and three-dimensional objects, such as [[cutout animation|paper cutouts]], [[puppets]] and [[Clay animation|clay figures]]. Images are displayed in a rapid succession, usually 24, 25, or 30 frames per second. == Etymology == From Latin ''animātiō'', "the act of bringing to life"; from ''animō'' ("to animate" or "give life to") and ''-ātiō'' ("the act of").{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} == History == {{Main|History of animation}} [[Image:Phenakistoscope 3g07690u.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A phenakistoscope disc by [[Eadweard Muybridge]] (1893)]] Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of [[motion (physics)|motion]] into a still drawing can be found in [[paleolithic]] [[cave painting]]s, where animals are often depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions, clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion. A Chinese [[zoetrope]]-type device had been invented in 180&nbsp;AD.<ref>{{cite book | last = Ronan | first = Colin A | author2 = Joseph Needham | year = 1985 | title = The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 2 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-521-31536-4}}</ref> The [[Voynich manuscript]] that dates back to between 1404 and 1438 contains several series of illustrations of the same subject-matter and even few circles that – when spun around the center – would create an illusion of motion.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JgALlSPlZC8</ref> These devices produced the appearance of movement from sequential drawings using technological means, but animation did not really develop much further until the advent of [[cinematography]]. The [[cinématographe]] was a projector, printer, and camera in one machine that allowed moving pictures to be shown successfully on a screen which was invented by history's earliest film makers, [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], in 1894.<ref>{{cite web|last=McLaughlin|first=Dan|title=A RATHER INCOMPLETE BUT STILL FASCINATING|url=http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html|work=Film Tv|publisher=UCLA|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref> The [[phenakistoscope]] (1832), [[zoetrope]] (1834) and [[praxinoscope]] (1877), as well as the common [[flip book]], were early animation devices to produce movement from sequential drawings using technological means, but animation did not develop further until the advent of [[film|motion picture film]]. The first animated projection (screening) was created in France, by [[Charles-Émile Reynaud]], who was a French science teacher. Reynaud created the [[Praxinoscope]] in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888. On 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, ''[[Pauvre Pierrot]]'', at the Musée Grévin in Paris. This film is also notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, but drawn directly onto the transparent strip. In 1900, more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings. [[File:Lanature1882 praxinoscope projection reynaud.png|thumb|Praxinoscope, The first projection (1877)]] The first film that was recorded on [[standard picture film]] and included animated sequences was the 1900 [[The Enchanted Drawing|Enchanted Drawing]], which was followed by the first entirely animated film - the 1906 ''[[Humorous Phases of Funny Faces]]'' by [[J. Stuart Blackton]], who, because of that, is considered the father of American animation. [[File:Fantasmagorie (Cohl).GIF|thumb|The first animated film created by using what came to be known as [[traditional animation|traditional (hand-drawn) animation]] - the 1908 ''[[Fantasmagorie (1908 film)|Fantasmagorie]]'' by [[Émile Cohl]]]] In Europe, the French artist, [[Émile Cohl]], created the first animated film using what came to be known as [[traditional animation]] creation methods - the 1908 ''[[Fantasmagorie (1908 film)|Fantasmagorie]]''. The film largely consisted of a [[stick figure]] moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, such as a wine bottle that transforms into a flower. There were also sections of live action in which the animator’s hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto [[negative film]], which gave the picture a blackboard look. The author of the first [[puppet]]-animated film (''The Beautiful Lukanida'' (1912)) was the Russian-born (ethnically [[Poles|Polish]]) director Wladyslaw Starewicz, known as [[Ladislas Starevich]].{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} The more detailed hand-drawn animations, requiring a team of animators drawing each frame manually with detailed backgrounds and characters, were those directed by [[Winsor McCay]], a successful newspaper cartoonist, including the 1911 ''[[Little Nemo]]'', the 1914 ''[[Gertie the Dinosaur]]'', and the 1918 ''[[The Sinking of the Lusitania]]''. During the 1910s, the production of animated short films, typically referred to as "cartoons", became an industry of its own and cartoon shorts were produced for showing in movie theaters. The most successful producer at the time was [[John Randolph Bray]], who, along with [[animator]] [[Earl Hurd]], patented the [[Traditional animation#Cels|cel animation]] process which dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade. ''[[El Apóstol]]'' (Spanish: "The Apostle") was a 1917 Argentine animated film utilizing cutout animation, and the world's first animated feature film.<ref>"[http://www.bcdb.com/cartoon/93678-El_Apostol.html El Apóstol]". ''www.bcdb.com'', 4 May 2011</ref> Unfortunately, a fire that destroyed producer Frederico Valle's film studio incinerated the only known copy of ''El Apóstol'', and it is now considered a [[lost film]]. [[Computer animation]] has become popular since ''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995), the first animated film completely made using this technique. In 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf |title=Animation |date=November 2009|accessdate= 24 July 2012|work= boi.gov.ph|publisher= Board of Investments}}</ref> == Techniques == === Traditional animation === {{Main|Traditional animation}} [[File:Animhorse.gif|thumb|right|200px|An example of traditional animation, a horse animated by [[rotoscoping]] from [[Eadweard Muybridge]]'s 19th century photos]] '''Traditional animation''' (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called [[cel]]s, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a [[rostrum camera]] onto motion picture film. The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional [[35&nbsp;mm film]] and newer media such as [[digital video]]. The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the [[character animator]]s' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" to describe cel animation which makes extensive use of computer technology. [[File:Animated GIF from the 1919 Feline folies by Pat Sullivan.gif|thumb|250px|right|Excerpt from the 1919 ''Feline Follies'' with [[Felix the Cat]].]] Examples of traditionally animated feature films include ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'' (United States, 1940), ''[[Animal Farm (1954 film)|Animal Farm]]'' (United Kingdom, 1954), and [[The Illusionist (2010 film)|L'Illusionniste]] (British-French, 2010). Traditional animated films which were produced with the aid of computer technology include ''[[The Lion King]]'' (US, 1994), ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]]'' (Japan, 1988), ''[[Spirited Away|Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi (Spirited Away)]]'' (Japan, 2001), ''[[Les Triplettes de Belleville]]'' (France, 2003), and ''[[The Secret of Kells]]'' (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009). * '''Full animation''' refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement. Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works such as those produced by the [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney studio]] (''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'', ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'', ''[[The Lion King|Lion King]]'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the [[Warner Bros. Cartoons|Warner Bros. animation studio]]. Many of the [[Disney animated features]] are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works such as ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' (US, 1982), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (US, 1999), and ''[[Nocturna (Film)|Nocturna]]'' (Spain, 2007). * '''[[Limited animation]]''' involves the use of less detailed and/or more stylized drawings and methods of movement. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio [[United Productions of America]], limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in ''[[Gerald McBoing Boing]]'' (US, 1951), ''[[Yellow Submarine (1968 film)|Yellow Submarine]]'' (UK, 1968), and much of the [[anime]] produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media such as television (the work of [[Hanna-Barbera]], [[Filmation]], and other TV animation studios) and later [[the Internet]] ([[web cartoon]]s). * '''[[Rotoscoping]]''' is a technique patented by [[Max Fleischer]] in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, [[frame (film)|frame]] by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings, as in ''[[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|The Lord of the Rings]]'' (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in ''[[Waking Life]]'' (US, 2001) and ''[[A Scanner Darkly (film)|A Scanner Darkly]]'' (US, 2006). Some other examples are: ''[[Fire and Ice (1983 film)|Fire and Ice]]'' (US, 1983) and ''[[Heavy Metal (film)|Heavy Metal]]'' (1981). * '''[[Films with live action and animation|Live-action/animation]]''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots. One of the earlier uses was in [[Koko the Clown]] when Koko was drawn over live action footage. Other examples include ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' (US, 1988), ''[[Space Jam]]'' (US, 1996) and ''[[Osmosis Jones]]'' (US, 2001). === Stop motion animation === {{Main|Stop motion}} '''Stop-motion animation''' is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; however, traditional stop motion animation is usually less expensive and time-consuming to produce than current computer animation. * '''[[Puppet animation]]''' typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation. The puppets generally have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] inside of them to keep them still and steady as well as to constrain their motion to particular joints. Examples include ''[[The Tale of the Fox]]'' (France, 1937), ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' (US, 1993), ''[[Corpse Bride]]'' (US, 2005), ''[[Coraline (film)|Coraline]]'' (US, 2009), the films of [[Jiří Trnka]] and the TV series ''[[Robot Chicken]]'' (US, 2005–present). ** '''[[Puppetoon]]''', created using techniques developed by [[George Pal]], are puppet-animated films which typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet. [[File:Animacion-con-plastilina-y-clay-animation-pelicula-Kuzmich-153.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Clay animation]]]] * '''[[Clay animation]]''', or [[Plasticine]] animation (often called ''claymation'', which, however, is a [[Laika (company)|trademark]]ed name), uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation. The figures may have an [[armature (sculpture)|armature]] or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures. Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, such as in the films of [[Bruce Bickford (animator)|Bruce Bickford]], where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include ''[[Gumby|The Gumby Show]]'' (US, 1957–1967) ''[[Morph (character)|Morph]]'' shorts (UK, 1977–2000), ''[[Wallace and Gromit]]'' shorts (UK, as of 1989), [[Jan Švankmajer]]'s ''[[Dimensions of Dialogue]]'' ([[Czechoslovakia]], 1982), ''[[The Trap Door]]'' (UK, 1984). Films include ''[[Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit]]'', ''[[Chicken Run]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]''. * '''[[Cutout animation]]''' is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material such as paper or cloth. Examples include [[Terry Gilliam]]'s animated sequences from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''[[Fantastic Planet]]'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973) ; ''[[Tale of Tales (film)|Tale of Tales]]'' (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the TV series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''[[South Park]]'' (US, 1997). [[File:Claychick.jpg|thumb|225px|left|A clay animation scene from a [[Finland|Finnish]] television commercial]] ** '''[[Silhouette animation]]''' is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes. Examples include ''[[The Adventures of Prince Achmed]]'' ([[Weimar Republic]], 1926) and ''[[Ciné si|Princes et princesses]]'' (France, 2000). * '''[[Model animation]]''' refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world. Intercutting, [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]] effects, and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings. Examples include the work of [[Ray Harryhausen]], as seen in films such ''[[Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (1963), and the work of [[Willis O'Brien]] on films such as ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933 film). ** '''[[Go motion]]''' is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create [[motion blur]] between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop-motion. The technique was invented by [[Industrial Light & Magic]] and [[Phil Tippett]] to create [[special effects]] scenes for the film ''[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back|The Empire Strikes Back]]'' (1980). Another example is the dragon named "Vermithrax" from ''[[Dragonslayer]]'' (1981 film). * '''[[Object animation]]''' refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items. ** '''[[Graphic animation]]''' uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame-by-frame to create movement. At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action. ** '''[[Brickfilm]]''' A sub-genre of object animation involving using [[Lego]] or other similar brick toys to make an animation. These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites like YouTube and the availability of cheap cameras and animation software. * '''[[Pixilation]]''' involves the use of live humans as stop motion characters. This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other such effects. Examples of pixilation include ''[[The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb]]'' and ''[[Angry Kid]]'' shorts. === Computer animation === {{Main|Computer animation}} '''Computer animation''' encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer. ==== 2D animation ==== [[File:Animation-W.gif|thumb|132x132px]] [[2D computer graphics|2D animation]] figures are created and/or edited on the computer using 2D [[bitmap graphics]] or created and edited using 2D [[vector graphics]]. This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques such as [[interpolated]] [[morphing]], [[onion skinning]] and [[interpolated]] rotoscoping. 2D animation has many applications, including [[Scanimate|analog computer animation]], [[Flash animation]] and [[PowerPoint animation]]. [[Cinemagraph]]s are [[still photograph]]s in the form of an [[animated GIF]] file of which part is animated. ===== 2D Terms ===== * '''[[Final line advection animation]]''',<ref>[http://www.3dworldmag.com/2012/06/29/disneys-paperman-animated-short-fuses-cg-and-hand-drawn-techniques/ Disney’s Paperman animated short fuses CG and hand-drawn techniques]</ref> a technique that gives the artists and animators a lot more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department: <blockquote>''In [[Paperman]], we didn’t have a cloth department and we didn’t have a hair department. Here, folds in the fabric, hair silhouettes and the like come from of the committed design decision-making that comes with the 2D drawn process. Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm. And they can design all the fabric in that [[Milt Kahl]] kind-of way, if they want to.''<ref>[http://www.cartoonbrew.com/cgi/a-little-more-about-disneys-paperman-63782.html A Little More About Disney’s “Paperman”]</ref></blockquote> ==== 3D animation ==== {{Main|Computer animation|3D computer graphics}} 3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The animator starts by creating an external 3D mesh to manipulate. A mesh is a geometric configuration that gives the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment. The mesh may have many vertices which are the geometric points which make up the mesh; it is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh with weights. This process is called rigging and can be programmed for movement with keyframes. Other techniques can be applied, such as mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects such as fire and water simulations. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics. ===== 3D Terms ===== * '''[[Cel-shaded animation]]''' is used to mimic traditional animation using CG software. Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include, ''[[Skyland]]'' (2007, France), ''[[Appleseed Ex Machina]]'' (2007, Japan), ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Wind Waker]]'' (2002, Japan) * '''[[Machinima]]''' – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. * '''[[Motion capture]]''' is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters. Examples include ''[[Polar Express]]'' (2004, US), ''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' (2007, US), ''[[A Christmas Carol (2009 film)|A Christmas Carol]]'' (2009, US), ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (film)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' (2011, US) * '''[[Computer animation|Photo-realistic animation]]''' is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc. Examples include ''[[Up (2009 film)|Up]]'' (2009, US), ''[[Kung-Fu Panda]]'' (2008, US), ''[[Ice Age (2002 film)|Ice Age]]'' (2002, US). === Mechanical animation === [[File:Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln.jpg|thumb|left|Audio-Animatronic version of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln.]] * '''[[Animatronics]]''' is the use of [[mechatronics]] to create machines which seem animate rather than robotic. ** '''[[Audio-Animatronics|Audio-Animatronics and Autonomatronics]]''' is a form of [[robotic]]s animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song), but are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand but cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an [[android (robot)|android]]-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics. ** '''Linear Animation Generator''' is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames. The concept and the technical solution, were invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania. * '''[[Chuckimation]]''' is a type of animation created by the makers of the cartoon ''[[Action League Now!]]'' in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands, * '''[[Puppetry]]''' is a form of theatre or performance animation that involves the manipulation of puppets. It is very ancient, and is believed to have originated 3000 years BC.[1] Puppetry takes many forms but they all share the process of animating inanimate performing objects. Puppetry is used in almost all human societies both as entertainment – in performance – and ceremonially in rituals and celebrations such as carnivals. Most puppetry involves storytelling. [[File:Toy Story Zoetrope, Disney California Adventure 2.jpg|thumb|''[[Toy Story]]'' zoetrope at [[Disney California Adventure]] creates illusion of motion using figures, rather than static pictures.]] * '''[[Zoetrope]]''' is a device that produces the illusion of motion from a rapid succession of static pictures. The term zoetrope is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ζωή (''zoē''), meaning "alive, active", and τρόπος (''tropos''), meaning "turn", with "zoetrope" taken to mean "active turn" or "wheel of life". === Other animation styles, techniques and approaches === * '''[[Drawn on film animation]]''': a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on [[film stock]], for example by [[Norman McLaren]], [[Len Lye]] and [[Stan Brakhage]]. * '''[[Paint-on-glass animation]]''': a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying [[oil paint]]s on sheets of glass, for example by [[Aleksandr Petrov (animator)|Aleksandr Petrov]]. * '''Erasure animation''': a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, [[William Kentridge]] is famous for his [[charcoal]] erasure films, and [[Piotr Dumała]] for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster. * '''[[Pinscreen animation]]''': makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation. * '''[[Sand animation]]''': sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the [[light]] [[Contrast (vision)|contrast]]. * '''[[Flip book]]''': a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change. Flip books are often illustrated books for children, but may also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, but may appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners. Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books. * '''[[Character animation]]''' * '''[[Multi-sketch]]ing''' * '''[[Special effects animation]]''' ==Awards== As with any other form of media, animation too has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The original awards for animation were presented by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th [[Academy Awards]] function. The first winner of the [[Academy Award]] was the short [[Flowers and Trees]], a production by [[Walt Disney Productions]] and [[United Artists]].<ref>[http://www.freemayavideotutorials.com/what-is-new/flowers-and-trees-1932-ist-oscar-award-winner-3d-animation-movie.html Flowers And Trees [1932&#93;, Ist Oscar Award Winner 3D Animation Movie | Free Maya Video Tutorials<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> However, the Academy Award for a feature length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. It was won by the movie [[Shrek]],<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0126029/awards Shrek (2001) - Awards<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> produced by [[DreamWorks]] and [[Pacific Data Images]]. Since then, Disney/Pixar have produced the most movies either to win or be nominated for the award. The list of both awards can be obtained here: *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]] *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film]] Several other countries have instituted an award for best animated feature film as part of their national film awards: [[BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2006), [[César Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 2011), [[Goya Award for Best Animated Film]] (since 1989), [[Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year]] (since 2007). Also since 2007, the [[Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film]] has been awarded at the [[Asia Pacific Screen Awards]]. Since 2009, the [[European Film Awards]] have awarded the [[European Film Award for Best Animated Film]]. The [[Annie Award]] is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the Academy Awards, the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavor. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for Best Animated feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney, however newer studios, led by Pixar & DreamWorks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The list of awardees is as follows: *[[Annie Award for Best Animated Feature]] == See also == {{Wikipedia books|1=Animation}} * [[12 basic principles of animation]] * [[Animation software]] * [[Architectural animation]] * [[Tradigital art]] * [[Avar (animation variable)]] * [[Computer generated imagery]] * [[International Tournée of Animation]] * [[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture topics]] * [[Wire frame model]] * [[Motion graphic design]] * [[Model sheet]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=Note}} == References == {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == * [http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm Anderson, Joseph and Barbara, "The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited", ''Journal of Film and Video''], Vol. 45, No. 1 (Spring 1993): 3-12 * Culhane, Shamus, ''Animation Script to Screen'' * Laybourne, Kit, ''The Animation Book'' * Ledoux, Trish, Ranney, Doug, & Patten, Fred (Ed.), ''Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide'', Tiger Mountain Press 1997 * Lowe, Richard & Schnotz, Wolfgang (Eds) ''Learning with Animation. Research implications for design'' Cambridge University Press, 2008 * [[Terrence Masson|Masson, Terrence]], [http://www.cg101.com/ ''CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference''] Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels. ISBN 978-0-9778710-0-1 * Serenko, Alexander, [http://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Animation_Scale.pdf The development of an instrument to measure the degree of animation predisposition of agent users], Computers in Human Behavior Vol. 23, No. 1 (2007): 478-495. * [[Frank Thomas (animator)|Thomas, Frank]] and [[Ollie Johnston|Johnston, Ollie]], ''[[Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life]]'', Abbeville 1981 * Walters, Faber and Helen (Ed.), ''Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940'', HarperCollins Publishers, 2004 * [[Richard Williams (animator)|Williams, Richard]], ''[[The Animator's Survival Kit]]'' ISBN 978-0-571-20228-7 * Bob Godfrey and Anna Jackson, 'The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book' BBC Publications 1974 ISBN 978-0-563-10829-0 Now out of print but available s/hand through a range of sources such as Amazon Uk. * Lawson, Tim and Alisa Persons. ''[[The Magic Behind the Voices]]'': A Who's Who of Cartoon Voice Actors. University Press of Mississippi. 2004. (A history of cartoon voice-overs and biographies and photographs of many prominent animation voice actors.) * Ball, R., Beck, J., DeMott R., Deneroff, H., Gerstein, D., Gladstone, F., Knott, T., Leal, A., Maestri, G., Mallory, M., Mayerson, M., McCracken, H., McGuire, D., Nagel, J., Pattern, F., Pointer, R., Webb, P., Robinson, C., Ryan, W., Scott, K., Snyder, A. & Webb, G. (2004) ''Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI''. Fulhamm London.: Flame Tree Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84451-140-2 * Crafton, Donald (1982). ''Before Mickey''. Cambridge, Massachusetts.: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03083-0 * Solomon, Charles (1989). ''Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation''. New York.: Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-394-54684-1 == External links == {{Wiktionary|animation}} {{Commons category|Animations}} * {{dmoz|Arts/Animation}} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Animation }} * [http://web.archive.org/web/20080307025951/http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf Experimental Animation Techniques] * [http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/cartoon/cartoon.html The making of an 8-minute cartoon short] * [http://www.nfb.ca/film/animando_english/ "Animando"], a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them). {{Animation}} {{Film genres}} {{Portal bar|Animation|Film|Arts|Visual arts}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Animation}} [[Category:Animation| ]] {{Link GA|as}} dekwv29dg6ivh80h68kkwke8g5l9dol wikitext text/x-wiki 0 594 602497419 601653723 2014-04-03T00:22:34Z Jason Quinn 48734 fixed deprecated "coauthors" parameter in cite templates {{About|the Greek and Roman god||Apollo (disambiguation)|and|Phoebus (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef}}{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}{{Redirect-distinguish|Phoebus|Phobos (mythology)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} <!-- this article uses the BCE/CE convention --> {{Infobox deity | type = Greek | name = Apollo | image = Belvedere Apollo Pio-Clementino Inv1015.jpg | image_size = | alt = | caption = ''[[Apollo Belvedere]]'', ca. 120–140 CE | god_of = God of music, poetry, art, oracles, archery, plague, medicine, sun, light and knowledge | abode = [[Mount Olympus]] | symbol = [[Lyre]], [[Bay Laurel|laurel]] wreath, [[Python (mythology)|python]], [[raven]], bow and arrows | consort = | parents = [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]] | siblings = [[Artemis]] | children = [[Asclepius]], [[Troilus]], [[Aristaeus]], [[Orpheus]] | mount = | Roman_equivalent = Apollo }} {{Special characters}} {{Ancient Greek religion}} '''Apollo''' ([[Attic Greek|Attic]], [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]], and [[Homeric Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλων}}, ''Apollōn'' (<small>[[Genitive|GEN]]</small> {{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλωνος}}); [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}, ''Apellōn''; [[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀπείλων}}, ''Apeilōn''; [[Aeolic Greek|Aeolic]]: {{lang|grc|Ἄπλουν}}, ''Aploun''; {{lang-la|Apollō}}) is one of the most important and complex of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]] in [[Ancient Greek religion|classical Greek]] and [[Ancient Roman religion|Roman religion]] and [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]]. The ideal of the ''[[kouros]]'' (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun, truth and prophecy, healing, plague, music, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress [[Artemis]]. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced [[Etruscan mythology]] as ''Apulu''. As the patron of [[Delphi]] (''Pythian Apollo''), Apollo was an [[oracular]] god—the prophetic deity of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]]. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son [[Asclepius]], yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly [[Plague (disease)|plague]]. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over [[Colonies in antiquity|colonists]], and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the [[Muse]]s (''Apollon Musegetes'') and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. [[Hermes]] created the [[lyre]] for him, and the instrument became a common [[Apollo#Attributes and symbols|attribute of Apollo]]. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[paean]]s. In Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as ''Apollo Helios'' he became identified among Greeks with [[Helios]], [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister Artemis similarly equated with [[Selene]], Titan [[lunar deity|goddess of the moon]].<ref>For the iconography of the Alexander–Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. "Helios", in ''Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt'' '''2''', pp. 117–23; cf. Yalouris 1980, no. 42.</ref> In Latin texts, on the other hand, [[Joseph Fontenrose]] declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with [[Sol (mythology)|Sol]] among the [[Classical Latin|Augustan poets]] of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of [[Aeneas]] and [[Latinus]] in ''[[Aeneid]]'' XII (161–215).<ref>Joseph Fontenrose, "Apollo and Sol in the Latin poets of the first century BC", ''Transactions of the American Philological Association'' '''30''' (1939), pp 439–55; "Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid", ''American Journal of Philology'' '''61''' (1940) pp 429–44; and "Apollo and Sol in the Oaths of Aeneas and Latinus" ''Classical Philology'' '''38'''.2 (April 1943), pp. 137–138.</ref> Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE. ==Etymology== [[File:AGMA Apollon Lykeios.jpg|thumb|upright|Statuette of the ''Apollo Lykeios'' type, [[Ancient Agora of Athens|Museum of the Ancient Agora of Athens]] (inv. BI 236).]] [[File:Tetradrachme de la région Illyro Péonienne.jpg|thumb|left|Tetradrachm from the Illyro-Paeonian region, representing Apollo]] The etymology of ''Apollo'' is uncertain. The spelling Ἀπόλλων had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form Απέλλων is more archaic, derived from an earlier {{lang|grc|*Ἀπέλjων}}. The name is certainly cognate with the Doric month name Ἀπέλλαιος and the Doric festival {{lang|grc|[[Apella|απελλαι]]}}.<ref name="DDD">{{cite book |last1=van der Toorn |first1=Karel |last2=Becking |first2=Bob |last3=van der Horst |first3=Pieter Willem |title=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible |url=http://books.google.com/?id=PHgUAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA73 |year=1999 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11119-6 |page=73}}</ref>{{clarify|date=March 2014|reason=Please explain how or why the linked to entity, i.e. the Spartan Assembly, is described as or connected to a festival or rephrase. Please also put proper accent and spiritus onto Greek word; is it the same as the ones on the Spartan Assembly (in Greek)?}} Several instances of [[popular etymology]] are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb {{lang|grc|ἀπόλλυμι}} (''apollymi''), "to destroy".<ref>{{cite web|author=Mike Campbell |url=http://www.behindthename.com/php/view.php?name=apollo |title=Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Apollo |publisher=Behind the Name |accessdate=30 July 2013}}</ref> [[Plato]] in ''[[Cratylus]]'' connects the name with {{lang|grc|ἀπόλυσις}} (''apolysis''), "redeem", with {{lang|grc|ἀπόλουσις}} (''apolousis''), "purification", and with {{lang|grc|ἁπλοῦν}} (''[h]aploun''), "simple",<ref>The {{lang|grc|ἁπλοῦν}} suggestion is repeated by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' in the sense of "[[1 (number)|unity]]".</ref> in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, {{lang|grc|Ἄπλουν}}, and finally with {{lang|grc|Ἀειβάλλων}} (''aeiballon''), "ever-shooting". [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλα}} (''apella''), which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation {{lang|grc|σηκός}} (''sekos''), "fold", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. Following the tradition of these Ancient Greek folk etymologies, in the Doric dialect the word {{lang|grc|ἀπέλλα}} originally meant wall, fence from animals and later assembly within the ''[[agora]]''.{{cn|date=March 2014}} In the [[Ancient Macedonian language]] {{lang|grc|πέλλα}} (''pella'') means stone, and some [[toponyms]] are derived from this word: {{lang|grc|Πέλλα}} ([[Pella]]:capital of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Ancient Macedonia]]), {{lang|grc|Πελλήνη}} (''Pellene''-''[[Pallini|Pallene]]'').<!--eta = long e in English; really should be transliterated as Pellēne; EDIT(March 2014): Done--> A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name,<ref>Martin Nilsson, ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion'', vol. I (C.H. Beck) 1955:555-564.</ref> The form ''[[Apaliunas]]'' (''^d{{lang|hit-Latn|x-ap-pa-li-u-na-aš}}'') is attested as a god of [[Wilusa]],<ref>The reading of ''Apaliunas'' and the possible identification with Apollo is due to [[Emil Forrer]] (1931). It was doubted by [[Paul Kretschmer|Kretschmer]], Glotta XXIV p.250.Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I p.559</ref> which is the city of [[Troy]], in a treaty between [[Alaksandu]] of Wilusa and the [[Hittites|Hittite]] great king [[Muwatalli II]] c. 1280 BCE. ''Alaksandu'' could be [[Paris (mythology)|Paris-Alexander]] of [[Troy|Ilion]],<ref>Latacz, Joachim, ''Troia und Homer: Der Weg zur Lösung eines alten Rätsels.'' (Munich) 2001:138.</ref> whose name is Greek.<ref>{{LSJ|a)le/candros|ἀλέξανδρος|ref}}.</ref> The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] testimony reflects an early form ''{{lang|grc-Latin|*Apeljōn}}'', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot {{lang|grc|Ἀπείλων}} with Doric {{lang|grc|Ἀπέλλων}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Angel |first1=John L. |last2=Mellink |first2=Machteld Johanna | title = Troy and the Trojan War: A Symposium Held at Bryn Mawr College, October 1984| year = 1986| publisher = Bryn Mawr Commentaries| isbn = 978-0-929524-59-7| page = 42 }}</ref> A [[Luwian language|Luwian]] etymology suggested for ''Apaliunas'' makes Apollo "The One of Entrapment", perhaps in the sense of "Hunter".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Immerwahr |first1=Sara Anderson |last2=Chapin |first2=Anne Proctor | title = Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr| year = 2004| publisher = Amer School of Classical| isbn = 978-0-87661-533-1| page = 254 }}</ref> Among the proposed etymologies is the [[Hurrian]] and Hittite divinity, ''Aplu'', who was widely invoked during the "plague years". Aplu, it is suggested, comes from the [[Akkadian]] ''Aplu Enlil'', meaning "the son of Enlil", a title that was given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to [[Shamash]], Babylonian god of the sun.<ref name="Grummond">de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006) ''Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend''. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology); Mackenzie, Donald A. (2005) ''Myths of Babylonia and Assyria'' (Gutenberg)</ref> ===Greco-Roman epithets=== Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of [[epithet]]s applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in [[Latin literature]], chief among them '''Phoebus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|b|ə|s}} {{respell|FEE|bəs}}; {{lang|grc|Φοῖβος}}, ''Phoibos'', literally "radiant"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light. As sun-god and god of light, Apollo was also known by the epithets '''Aegletes''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|ɡ|l|iː|t|iː|z}} {{respell|ə|GLEE|teez}}; Αἰγλήτης, ''Aiglētēs'', from {{lang|grc|αἴγλη}}, "light of the sun"),<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], iv. 1730;'' Pseudo-Apollodorus, [[Bibliotheke|Biblioteca]]'', i. 9. § 26</ref> '''Helius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|iː|l|i|ə|s}} {{respell|HEE|lee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἥλιος}}, ''[[Helios]]'', literally "sun"),<ref name="simbolismo">{{cite book| last = Álvaro, Jr., Santos| first = Allan| title = Simbolismo divino| url = http://books.google.com/?id=uAiConL3xyYC| publisher = Allan Álvaro, Jr., Santos }}</ref> '''Phanaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|f|ə|ˈ|n|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|fə|NEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Φαναῖος}}, ''Phanaios'', literally "giving or bringing light"), and '''[[Apollo Lyceus|Lyceus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|s|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ly|SEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λύκειος}}, ''Lykeios'', from [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]] *{{lang|grc|λύκη}}, "light"). The meaning of the epithet "Lyceus" later became associated Apollo's mother [[Leto]], who was the patron goddess of [[Lycia]] ({{lang|grc|Λυκία}}) and who was identified with the wolf ({{lang|grc|λύκος}}),<ref>Aelian, ''On the Nature of Animals'' 4. 4 (A.F. Scholfield, tr.).</ref> earning him the epithets '''Lycegenes''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|s|ɛ|dʒ|ə|n|iː|z}} {{respell|ly|SEJ|ə-neez}}; {{lang|grc|Λυκηγενής}}, ''Lukēgenēs'', literally "born of a wolf" or "born of Lycia") and '''Lycoctonus''' ({{IPAc-en|l|aɪ|ˈ|k|ɒ|k|t|ə|n|ə|s}} {{respell|ly|KOK|tə-nəs}}; {{lang|grc|Λυκοκτόνος}}, ''Lykoktonos'', from {{lang|grc|λύκος}}, "wolf", and {{lang|grc|κτείνειν}}, "to kill"). As god of the sun, the Romans referred to Apollo as '''[[Sol (mythology)|Sol]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɒ|l}} {{respell|SOL|'}}; literally "sun" in Latin). In association with his birthplace, [[Cynthus|Mount Cynthus]] on the island of [[Delos]], Apollo was called '''Cynthius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|n|θ|i|ə|s}} {{respell|SIN|thee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Κύνθιος}}, ''Kunthios'', literally "Cynthian"), '''Cynthogenes''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|n|ˈ|θ|ɒ|dʒ|ɨ|n|iː|z}} {{respell|sin|THOJ|i-neez}}; {{lang|grc|Κυνθογενής}}, ''Kynthogenēs'', literally "born of Cynthus"), and '''Delius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|iː|l|i|ə|s}} {{respell|DEE|lee-əs}}; Δήλιος, ''Delios'', literally "Delian"). As [[Artemis]]'s twin, Apollo had the epithet '''Didymaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|d|ɨ|ˈ|m|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|did-i|MEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Διδυμαῖος}}, ''Didymaios'', from δίδυμος, "twin"). [[File:Bassai Temple Of Apollo Detail.jpg|250px|thumb|Partial view of the temple of Apollo Epikurios (healer) at [[Bassae]] in southern Greece]] Apollo was worshipped as '''Actiacus''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|k|ˈ|t|aɪ|.|ə|k|ə|s}} {{respell|ak|TY|ə-kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἄκτιακός}}, ''Aktiakos'', literally "Actian"), '''Delphinius''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ɛ|l|ˈ|f|ɪ|n|i|ə|s}} {{respell|del|FIN|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Δελφίνιος}}, ''Delphinios'', literally "Delphic"), and '''Pythius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|θ|i|ə|s}} {{respell|PITH|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Πύθιος}}, ''Puthios'', from Πυθώ, ''Pythō'', the area around Delphi), after [[Actium]] ({{lang|grc|Ἄκτιον}}) and [[Delphi]] (Δελφοί) respectively, two of his principal places of worship.<ref>[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' xiii. 715</ref><ref>[[Strabo]], x. p. 451</ref> An [[etiology]] in the ''[[Homeric hymns]]'' associated the epithet "Delphinius" with dolphins. He was worshipped as '''Acraephius''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|r|iː|f|i|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|KREE|fee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκραιφιος}},{{clarify|date=March 2014|reason=Please put proper accent onto Greek word.}} ''Akraiphios'', literally "Acraephian") or '''Acraephiaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|k|r|iː|f|i|ˈ|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|KREE|fee|EE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκραιφιαίος}}, ''Akraiphiaios'', literally "Acraephian") in the [[Boeotia]]n town of [[Acraephia]] ({{lang|grc|Ἀκραιφία}}), reputedly founded by his son [[Acraepheus]]; and as '''[[Apollo Smintheus|Smintheus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|m|ɪ|n|θ|j|uː|s}} {{respell|SMIN|thews}}; {{lang|grc|Σμινθεύς}}, ''Smintheus'', "Sminthian"—that is, "of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe")<ref name=LSJsmintheus>{{LSJ|*sminqeu/s|Σμινθεύς|shortref}}.</ref> near the [[Troad]] town of [[Hamaxitus]]. The epithet "Smintheus" has historically been confused with {{lang|grc|σμίνθος}}, "mouse", in association with Apollo's role as a god of disease. For this he was also known as '''Parnopius''' ({{IPAc-en|p|ɑr|ˈ|n|oʊ|p|i|ə|s}} {{respell|par|NOH|pee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Παρνόπιος}}, ''Parnopios'', from {{lang|grc|πάρνοψ}}, "locust") and to the Romans as '''Culicarius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|juː|l|ɨ|ˈ|k|ær|i|ə|s}} {{respell|KEW|li|KARR|ee-əs}}; from Latin ''culicārius'', "of midges"). [[File:TempleDelos.jpg|thumb|250px|Temple of the Delians at [[Delos]], dedicated to Apollo (478 BC). 19th-century pen-and-wash restoration.]] [[File:Chryse.jpg|thumb|250px|Temple of Apollo Smintheus at [[Çanakkale]], Turkey]] In Apollo's role as a healer, his appellations included '''Acesius''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|iː|ʒ|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|SEE|zhəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκέσιος}}, ''Akesios'', from {{lang|grc|ἄκεσις}}, "healing"), '''[[Acestor]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|ɛ|s|t|ər}} {{respell|ə|SES|tər}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀκέστωρ}}, ''Akestōr'', literally "healer"), '''[[Paean (god)|Paean]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|iː|ə|n}} {{respell|PEE|ən}}; {{lang|grc|Παιάν}}, ''Paiān'', from {{lang|grc|παίειν}}, "to touch"),{{cn|date=March 2014}} and '''Iatrus''' ({{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˈ|æ|t|r|ə|s}} {{respell|eye|AT|rəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰατρός}}, ''Iātros'', literally "physician").<ref>[[Euripides]], ''[[Andromache (play)|Andromache]]'' 901</ref> Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in [[Elis]], where he had a temple in the [[agora]].<ref name="Smith">{{cite book|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D2%3Aentry%3Dacesius-bio-1|chapter=Acesius|last=Smith|first=William|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology|place=London|year=1873}} At the Perseus Project.</ref> The Romans referred to Apollo as '''Medicus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛ|d|ɨ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|MED|i-kəs}}; literally "physician" in Latin) in this respect. A [[Roman temple|temple]] was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of [[Bellona (goddess)|Bellona]]. As a protector and founder, Apollo had the epithets '''[[Alexicacus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|l|ɛ|k|s|ɨ|ˈ|k|eɪ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|LEK|si|KAY|kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀλεξίκακος}}, ''Alexikakos'', literally "warding off evil"), '''Apotropaeus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˌ|p|ɒ|t|r|ə|ˈ|p|iː|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|POT|rə|PEE|əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀποτρόπαιος}}, ''Apotropaios'', from {{lang|grc|ἀποτρέπειν}}, "to avert"), and '''Epicurius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɛ|p|ɨ|ˈ|k|j|ʊr|i|ə|s}} {{respell|EP|i|KEWR|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἐπικούριος}}, ''Epikourios'', from {{lang|grc|ἐπικουρέειν}}, "to aid"),<ref name=simbolismo/> and '''Archegetes''' ({{IPAc-en|ɑr|ˈ|k|ɛ|dʒ|ə|t|iː|z}} {{respell|ar|KEJ|ə-teez}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀρχηγέτης}}, ''Arkhēgetēs'', literally "founder"), '''Clarius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|l|ær|i|ə|s}} {{respell|KLARR|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Κλάριος}}, ''Klārios'', from [[Doric Greek|Doric]] {{lang|grc|κλάρος}}, "allotted lot"), and '''Genetor''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|n|ɨ|t|ər}} {{respell|JEN|i-tər}}; {{lang|grc|Γενέτωρ}}, ''Genetōr'', literally "ancestor").<ref name=simbolismo/> To the Romans, he was known in this capacity as '''Averruncus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|v|ə|ˈ|r|ʌ|ŋ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|AV|ər|RUNG|kəs}}; from Latin ''āverruncare'', "to avert"). He was also called '''[[Agyieus]]''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|dʒ|aɪ|.|ɨ|juː|s}} {{respell|ə|GWEE|ews}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀγυιεύς}}, ''Aguīeus'', from {{lang|grc|ἄγυια}}, "street") for his role in protecting roads and homes; and '''Nomius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|oʊ|m|i|ə|s}} {{respell|NOH|mee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Νόμιος}}, ''Nomios'', literally "pastoral") and '''Nymphegetes''' ({{IPAc-en|n|ɪ|m|ˈ|f|ɛ|dʒ|ɨ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|nim|FEJ|i-teez}}; {{lang|grc|Νυμφηγέτης}}, ''Numphēgetēs'', from {{lang|grc|Νύμφη}}, "Nymph", and {{lang|grc|ἡγέτης}}, "leader") for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life. In his role as god of prophecy and truth, Apollo had the epithets '''Manticus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|æ|n|t|ɨ|k|ə|s}} {{respell|MAN|ti-kəs}}; {{lang|grc|Μαντικός}}, ''Mantikos'', literally "prophetic"), '''Leschenorius''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|l|ɛ|s|k|ɨ|ˈ|n|ɔər|i|ə|s}} {{respell|LES|ki|NOHR|ee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λεσχηνόριος}}, ''Leskhēnorios'', from {{lang|grc|λεσχήνωρ}}, "converser"), and '''Loxias''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɒ|k||s|i|ə|s}} {{respell|LOK|see-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Λοξίας}}, ''Loxias'', from {{lang|grc|λέγειν}}, "to say").<ref name=simbolismo/> The epithet "Loxias" has historically been associated with {{lang|grc|λοξός}}, "ambiguous". In this respect, the Romans called him '''Coelispex''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛ|l|ɨ|s|p|ɛ|k|s}} {{respell|SEL|i-speks}}; from Latin ''coelum'', "sky", and ''specere'', "to look at"). The epithet '''Iatromantis''' ({{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˌ|æ|t|r|ə|ˈ|m|æ|n|t|ɪ|s}} {{respell|eye|AT|rə|MAN|tis}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰατρομάντις}}, ''Iātromantis'', from {{lang|grc|ἰατρός}}, "physician", and {{lang|grc|μάντις}}, "prophet") refers to both his role as a god of healing and of prophecy. As god of music and arts, Apollo had the epithet '''Musagetes''' ({{IPAc-en|m|juː|ˈ|s|æ|dʒ|ɨ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|mew|SAJ|i-teez}}; [[Doric Greek|Doric]] {{lang|grc|Μουσαγέτας}}, ''Mousāgetās'')<ref>{{LSJ|*mousage/tas|Μουσαγέτας|shortref}}.</ref> or '''Musegetes''' ({{IPAc-en|m|juː|ˈ|s|ɛ|dʒ|ɨ|t|iː|z}} {{respell|mew|SEJ|i-teez}}; {{lang|grc|Μουσηγέτης}}, ''Mousēgetēs'', from {{lang|grc|Μούσα}}, "[[Muse]]", and {{lang|grc|ἡγέτης}}, "leader"). As a god of archery, Apollo was known as '''Aphetor''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|f|iː|t|ər}} {{respell|ə|FEE|tər}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀφήτωρ}}, ''Aphētōr'', from {{lang|grc|ἀφίημι}}, "to let loose") or '''Aphetorus''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|f|ɛ|t|ər|ə|s}} {{respell|ə|FET|ər-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀφητόρος}}, ''Aphētoros'', of the same origin), '''Argyrotoxus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑr|dʒ|ɨ|r|ə|ˈ|t|ɒ|k|s|ə|s}} {{respell|AR|ji-rə|TOK|səs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἀργυρότοξος}}, ''Argyrotoxos'', literally "with silver bow"), '''Hecaërgus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɛ|k|i|ˈ|ɜr|ɡ|ə|s}} {{respell|HEK|ee|UR|gəs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἑκάεργος}}, ''Hekaergos'', literally "far-shooting"), and '''Hecebolus''' ({{IPAc-en|h|ɨ|ˈ|s|ɛ|b|ə|l|ə|s}} {{respell|hi|SEB|ə-ləs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἑκηβόλος}}, ''Hekēbolos'', literally "far-shooting"). The Romans referred to Apollo as '''Articenens''' ({{IPAc-en|ɑr|ˈ|t|ɪ|s|ɨ|n|ə|n|z}} {{respell|ar|TISS|i-nənz}}; "bow-carrying"). Apollo was called '''Ismenius''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|z|ˈ|m|iː|n|i|ə|s}} {{respell|iz|MEE|nee-əs}}; {{lang|grc|Ἰσμηνιός}}, ''Ismēnios'', literally "of Ismenus") after Ismenus, the son of [[Amphion]] and [[Niobe]], whom he struck with an arrow. ===Celtic epithets and cult titles=== Apollo was worshipped throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. In the traditionally [[Celtic nations|Celtic]] lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with [[List of Celtic gods|Celtic gods]] of similar character.<ref>Miranda J. Green, ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997</ref> * '''[[Apollo Atepomarus]]''' ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at [[Mauvières]] ([[Indre]]). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.<ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' XIII, 1863–1986; A. Ross, ''Pagan Celtic Britain'', 1967; M.J. Green, ''The Gods of the Celts'', 1986, London</ref> * '''[[Apollo Belenus]]''' ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of [[Gaul]], Northern Italy and [[Noricum]] (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.<ref>J. Zwicker, ''Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae'', 1934–36, Berlin; ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' V, XI, XII, XIII; J. Gourcest, "Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule", ''Ogam'' '''6'''.6 (1954:257–262); E. Thevonot, "Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est", ''Revue archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est'' (vol 2), 1951; [], "Temoignages du culte de l'Apollon gaulois dans l'Helvetie romaine"'', Revue celtique'' (vol 51), 1934.</ref> * '''[[Apollo Cunomaglus]]''' ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine in [[Wiltshire]]. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.<ref>W.J. Wedlake, ''The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Wiltshire, 1956–1971'', Society of Antiquaries of London, 1982.</ref> * '''[[Apollo Grannus]]'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.<ref>M. Szabo, ''The Celtic Heritage in Hungary'', (Budapest)1971, Budapest</ref><ref name="thevonat">Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris</ref><ref name="devries">La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris</ref> * '''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and [[Maponus]]. * '''[[Apollo Moritasgus]]''' ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.<ref>J. Le Gall, ''Alesia, archeologie et histoire'', (Paris) 1963.</ref> * '''[[Apollo Vindonnus]]''' ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at [[Essarois]], near [[Châtillon-sur-Seine]] in present-day [[Burgundy]]. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.<ref name=thevonat/> * '''[[Apollo Virotutis]]''' ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy ([[Haute-Savoie]]) and at [[Jublains]] ([[Maine-et-Loire]]).<ref name=devries/><ref>''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' XIII</ref> ==Origins== [[File:Omphalos museum.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Omphalos]] in the Museum of [[Delphi]]]] The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, [[Delphi]] and [[Delos]], date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to [[Artemis]], Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of [[Pytho]]. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In [[archaic period in Greece|archaic Greece]] he was the [[prophet]], the oracular god who in older times was connected with "healing". In [[classical period in Greece|classical Greece]] he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967)".Die Geschicte der Giechischen Religion.Vol I".C.F.Beck Verlag.Munchen. p 529</ref> [[Walter Burkert]]<ref>Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion'', 1985:144.</ref> discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed "a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component." From his eastern-origin Apollo brought the art of inspection from "symbols and [[omen|omina]]" (σημεία και τέρατα : ''semeia kai terata''), and of the observation of the [[omen]]s of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from [[Anatolia]]. The [[ritualism]] belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the [[Legalism (Western philosophy)|legalism]], the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old [[Anatolia]]n god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the [[Greek people|Greek]] people.<ref name="Nilsson563">[[Martin P. Nilsson|Martin Nilsson]]. ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion Vol I'', pp. 563-564</ref> ===Healer and god-protector from evil=== The function of Apollo as a "healer" is connected with [[Paean (god)|Paean]] ({{lang|grc|Παιών-Παιήων}}), the physician of the Gods in the ''[[Iliad]]'', who seems to come from a more primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the [[Mycenean Greece|Mycenean]] ''pa-ja-wo-ne'' ([[Linear B]]: {{lang|gmy|𐀞𐀊𐀍𐀚}}),<ref>{{cite book|title=The Mycenaeans|url=http://books.google.gr/books?id=QXwzT1048Z4C&lpg=PA144&pg=PA160#v=onepage&f=false|page=160|first=Louise|last=Schofield|year=2007|publisher=The British Museum Press|isbn=978-0-89236-867-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://minoan.deaditerranean.com/linear-b-transliterations/knossos/kn-v/kn-v/#toc-kn-v-52|title=KN V 52+|website=Deaditerranean: Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B}}</ref><ref name=Chawick>{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=John|author-link=John Chadwick|title=The Mycenaean World|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1976|isbn=0-521-29037-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RMj7M_tGaNMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA89#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=89}} At Google Books.</ref> but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song "paean" ({{lang|grc|παιάν}}). The magicians were also called "seer-doctors" ({{lang|grc|ἰατρομάντεις}}), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.<ref>{{lang|grc|Ἐπὶ καταπαύσει λοιμῶν καὶ νόσων ᾄδόμενος}}. ''Which is sung to stop the plagues and the diseases''. Proklos: Chrestom from Photios Bibl. code. 239, p. 321: Martin Nilsson. Die Geschicthe der Griechischen religion. Vol I p.543</ref> In the ''Iliad'', Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the terrible [[Vedic]] god of disease [[Rudra]].<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p.541">"The conception that the diseases come from invisible shots sent by magicians or supernatural beings is common in primitive people and also in European folklore. In North-Europe they speak of the "Elf-shots". In Sweden where the Lapps were called magicians, they speak of the "Lappen-shots". Martin Nilsson (1967).Vol I p.541</ref> He sends a terrible plague ({{lang|grc|λοιμός}}) to the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]]. The god who sends a disease can also prevent from it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a [[hecatomb]] to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful ''Paean''.<ref>[[Ilias]] A 314. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I p.543</ref> Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are "paion" ({{lang|grc|παιών}}, "touching"),{{cn|date=March 2014}} "epikourios" ({{lang|grc|ἐπικουρώ}}, "help"), "oulios" ({{lang|grc|οὐλή}}, "cured wound"),{{cn|date=March 2014|reason=Oule (see LSJ) is commonly translated as "wound scarred over, scar", i.e. the same as in modern Greek.}} and "loimios" ({{lang|grc|λοιμός}}, "plague"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called "apotropaios" ({{lang|grc|ἀποτρέπω}}, "divert", "deter", "avert") and "alexikakos" (from [[verb|v.]] {{lang|grc|ἀλέξω}} + [[noun|n.]] {{lang|grc|κακόν}}, "defend from evil").<ref>Pausanias VIII 41, 8-IV 34, 7-Sittig. Nom P. 48. f-Aristoph. Vesp. V. 61-Paus. I 3, 4. Martin Nilsson (1967) Vol I, p. 540, 544</ref> In later writers, the word, usually spelled "Paean", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of [[healing]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Graf| first = Fritz| title = Apollo| url = http://books.google.com/?id=it9n9_I-UOkC&pg=PA66| year = 2008| publisher = Taylor & Francis| isbn = 978-0-203-58171-1| page = 66 }}</ref> Homer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of [[apotropaic]] thanksgiving or triumph.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to [[Dionysus]], to Apollo [[Helios]], to Apollo's son [[Asclepius]] the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the [[Python (mythology)|Python]] led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won. ===Dorian origin=== [[File:Apollo-WaltersArt.jpg|left|thumb|''Apollo Victorious over the Python'' by the Florentine [[Pietro Francavilla]] (dated 1591) depicting Apollo's first triumph, when he slew with his bow and arrows the serpent Python, which lies dead at his feet<ref>{{cite web | publisher=[[The Walters Art Museum]] | url=http://art.thewalters.org/detail/7866 | title=Apollo Victorious over the Python | accessdate=21 June 2013}}</ref> ([[Walters Art Museum|The Walters Art Museum]]).]] The connection with Dorians and their initiation festival ''[[apella]]i''{{clarification|date=March 2014|reason=Same as the one at the etymology section; please clarify -or rephrase- how the linked to Spartan Assembly is a Festival.}} is reinforced by the month ''Apellaios'' in northwest Greek calendars,<ref>Graf, ''Apollo'' p. 104-113; Burkert also notes in this context [[Archilochus]] ''Fr.'' 94.</ref> but it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the [[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]] word "pella" ([[Pella]]), ''stone''. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi ([[Omphalos]]).<ref>Compare: [[Baetylus]]. In Semitic: sacred stone</ref><ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. p. 556</ref> The "Homeric hymn" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the "dark ages" that followed the destruction of the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean civilization]], and his conflict with [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent [[Python (mythology)|Python]].<ref>Herbert W. Park (1956). ''The delphic oracle''. Vol.I, p.3</ref> The earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle.<ref>Lewis Farnel(1909)''The cult of the city states. Clarendon Press. VIII pp.8-10''</ref> The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named [[Delphyne]] ({{lang|grc|δελφύς}}, "womb"), who is obviously connected with Delphi and ''Apollo Delphinios'', and a male serpent [[Typhon]] ({{lang|grc|τύφειν}}, "to smoke"), the adversary of [[Zeus]] in the [[Titanomachy]], who the narrators confused with [[Python (mythology)|Python]].<ref>"Many pictures show the serpent Python living in amity with Apollo and guarding the Omphalos. Karl Kerenyi (1951). ed. 1980: ''The gods of the Greeks'' pp.36-37</ref><ref>"In a Pompeian fresco Python is lying peacefully on the ground and the priests with the sacred double axe in their hand bring the bull (''bouphronion''). Jane. H. Harisson (1912): ''Themis. A study of the social origins of the Greek religion''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 423-424</ref> Python was the good daemon (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] religion,<ref>In Minoan religion the serpent is the protector of the household (underground stored corn). Also in Greek religion, "snake of the house" ({{lang|grc|οἰκουρὸς ὄφις}}) in the temple of [[Athena]] at Acropolis, etc., and in Greek folklore. Martin Nilsson Vol.I pp.213-214</ref> but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.<ref>Nordig sagas. [[Hittites|Hittite]] myth of [[Illuyankas]]. Also in the Bible: [[Leviathan]]. W. Porzig (1930).'' Illuyankas and Typhon. Kleinasiatische Forschung'' pp. 379-386</ref> Apollo and his sister [[Artemis]] can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in [[Germanic mythology|Germanic]] and [[Norse mythology|Norse]] mythology.<ref name="Martin Nilsson 1967 p.541"/> In [[Greek mythology]] Artemis was the leader ({{lang|grc|ἡγεμών}}, "hegemon") of the [[nymphs]], who had similar functions with the [[Norse mythology|Nordic]] [[Elf|Elves]].<ref name="Nilsson499">. Martin Nilsson (1967), Vol I, pp. 499-500</ref> The "elf-shot" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting [[arrow (weapon)|arrow]]-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.<ref>Hall, Alaric. 2005. 'Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials', [http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/app/home/journal.asp?wasp=e3d05mvqtg0qujqugt33&referrer=parent&backto=linkingpublicationresults,1:104708,1 ''Folklore'']{{dead link|date=March 2013}}, 116 (2005), 19-36.</ref> The [[Vedic]] Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called "The Archer", and the bow is also an attribute of [[Shiva]].<ref>For {{IAST|Śarva}} as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba, is a healer physician god.<ref>For association between Rudra and disease, with Rigvedic references, see: Bhandarkar, p. 146.</ref> However the [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] component of Apollo, does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult. ===Minoan origin=== [[File:AMI - Goldene Doppelaxt.jpg|thumb|250px|Ornamented golden [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[labrys]]]] It seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] ages.<ref>''[[Odyssey]]'' 8.80</ref> In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called [[labrys|Labryaden]], "the double-axe men", which indicates [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] origin. The double-axe, [[labrys]], was the holy symbol of the [[Crete|Cretan]] [[labyrinth]].<ref>Huxley (1975).''Cretan Paewones. Roman and Byzantine studies'' pp.129-134</ref><ref>H.G.Wunderlich. ''The secret of Creta'' Souvenir Press Ltd. London p. 319</ref> The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. ''Apollo Delphinios'' was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands, and his name indicates his connection with Delphi<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I p. 529</ref> and the holy serpent [[Delphyne]] ("womb").{{cn|date=March 2014|reason=Sources needed on both A."Delphyne ("womb")" (going from "delphys="womb"" to "Delphyne="womb"" is something unsubstantiated) and B.Delphinios connected to Delphyne.}} Apollo's sister [[Artemis]], who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with [[Britomartis]] ([[Diktynna]]), the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] "Mistress of the animals". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the "Mister of the animals", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. We don't know his original name, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more powerful Apollo, who stood by the "Mistress of the animals", becoming her brother.<ref name=Nilsson499/> The old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress [[Sibyl]] of [[Anatolia]]n origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself.<ref>Hugh Bowden (2005). ''Classical Athens and the Delphic oracle'' pp. 17-18</ref> However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.<ref>{{cite book| author = William J. Broad| title = The oracle: the lost secrets and hidden message of ancient Delphi| year = 2006| publisher = Penguin Group USA| isbn = 1-59420-081-5| page = 32 }}</ref> [[Plato]] describes the priestesses of Delphi and [[Dodona]] as frenzied women, obsessed by "mania" ({{lang|grc|μανία}}, "frenzy"), a Greek word he connected with ''mantis'' ({{lang|grc|μάντις}}, "prophet").<ref>{{LSJ|ma/ntis|μάντις|shortref}}.</ref> Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the [[Near East]] as [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] in the second millennium BC.<ref>Walter Burkert (1985).''The Greek religion''.p.116</ref> Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC,<ref>F.Schachermeyer (1964).p.128</ref> there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from [[Anatolia]] and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, pp. 543-545</ref> ===Anatolian origin=== [[File:Coin of Apollo Agyieus.png|thumb|250px|Illustration of a coin of Apollo Agyieus from [[Ambracia]]]] A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship.<ref name="DDD"/> The name of Apollo's mother [[Leto]] has [[Lydia]]n origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of [[Asia Minor]]. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from [[Anatolia]], which is the origin of [[Sibyl]], and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old [[Assyria|Assyro]]-[[Babylon]]ian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the [[Hittites]]. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain "purification".<ref name=Nilsson563/> A similar story is mentioned by [[Plutarch]]. He writes that the [[Creta]]n [[prophet|seer]] [[Epimenides]], purified [[Athens]] after the pollution brought by the [[Alcmeonidae]], and that the seer's expertise in [[sacrifice]]s and reform of funeral practices were of great help to [[Solon]] in his reform of the Athenian state.<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Solon'', 12; [[Aristotle]], ''[[Constitution of the Athenians#Aristotle|Ath. Pol]]''. 1.</ref> The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves together with the [[Homeric]] hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to the historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to [[Anatolia]]. [[Homer]] pictures Apollo on the side of the [[Troy|Trojans]], fighting against the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]], during the [[Trojan War]]. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to ''Appaliunas'', a tutelary god of [[Wilusa]] ([[Troy]]) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete.<ref>[[Paul Kretschmer]] (1936). Glotta XXIV p. 250. Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I p. 559.</ref> The stones found in front of the gates of [[Homer]]ic Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name {{lang|grc|ἀγυιεύς}} ''[[agyieus]]'' as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column.<ref>Martin Nilsson, ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion.'' vol. I (C.H. Beck) 1955:563f.</ref> However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the [[full moon]], all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (''sibutu'') indicates a [[Babylonia]]n origin.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I, p. 561.</ref> The [[Late Bronze Age]] (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) [[Hittites|Hittite]] and [[Hurrian]] ''Aplu'' was a god of [[Plague (disease)|plague]], invoked during plague years. Here we have an [[apotrope|apotropaic]] situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning ''the son of'', was a title given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun [[Shamash]].<ref name=Grummond /> Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god ({{lang|grc|δεινὸς θεός}}) who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods.<ref>Martin Nilsson (1967). Vol I. pp. 559-560.</ref> In ''[[Iliad]]'', his priest prays to ''Apollo Smintheus'',<ref>"You Apollo Smintheus, let my tears become your arrows against the Danaans, for revenge". [[Iliad]] 1.33 (A 33).</ref> the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats.<ref>An ancient aetiological myth connects ''sminthos'' with mouse and suggests Cretan origin. Apollo is the mouse-god (Strabo 13.1.48).</ref><ref name=LSJsmintheus/><ref>"Sminthia" in several areas of Greece. In [[Rhodes]] (Lindos) they belong to Apollo and Dionysos who have destroyed the rats that were swallowing the grapes". Martin Nilsson (1967). pp. 534-535.</ref> All these functions, including the function of the healer-god [[Paean (god)|Paean]], who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo. ==Oracular cult== [[File:Columns of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece.jpeg|thumb|250px|Columns of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] at Delphi, Greece]] Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: [[Delos]] and [[Delphi]]. In cult practice, [[Delos|Delian Apollo]] and [[Pythian Apollo]] (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.<ref>Burkert 1985:143.</ref> Apollo's [[Cult (religion)|cult]] was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the [[Archaic Greece|archaic period]], and the frequency of [[theophoric names]] such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'' and cities named ''Apollonia'' testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at [[Didyma]] and [[Clarus]] pronounced the so-called "theological oracles", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an [[Monism#Monism, pantheism, and panentheism|all-encompassing, highest deity]]. "In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. [[Julian the Apostate]] (359 - 61) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed."<ref name="DDD"/> ===Oracular shrines=== [[File:Delos lions.jpg|thumb|250px|Delos lions]] Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in Delphi, and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. His oracular shrine in [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]], where he bore the [[toponym]]ic epithet ''[[Abaeus]]'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος}}, ''Apollon Abaios'') was important enough to be consulted by [[Croesus]].<ref>[[Herodotus]], 1.46.</ref> His oracular shrines include: * [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]]. * [[Bassae]] in the [[Peloponnese]]. * At [[Clarus]], on the west coast of [[Asia Minor]]; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank. * In [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of [[Tenea]], from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. * At [[Khyrse]], in [[Troad]], the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. * In [[Delos]], there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In [[Delphi]], the [[Pythia]] became filled with the ''[[pneuma]]'' of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the [[Adyton]]. * In [[Didyma]], an oracle on the coast of [[Anatolia]], south west of [[Lydia]]n ([[Luwian]]) [[Sardis]], in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by [[Branchus]], son or lover of Apollo. * In [[Manbij|Hierapolis Bambyce]], Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise ''[[De Dea Syria]]'', the sanctuary of the [[Atargatis|Syrian Goddess]] contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.<ref>[[Lucian]] (attrib.), ''[[De Dea Syria]]'' [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/tsg/tsg07.htm#35 35–37].</ref> * At [[Patara (Lycia)|Patara]], in [[Lycia]], there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * In [[Segesta]] in Sicily. Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo. * In [[Oropus]], north of [[Athens]], the oracle [[Amphiaraus]], was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring. * in Labadea, {{convert|20|mi|km}} east of Delphi, [[Trophonius]], another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle. ==Mythology== ===Birth=== [[File:Apollo Artemis Brygos Louvre G151.jpg|thumb|250px|Apollo (left) and [[Artemis]]. [[Brygos]] (potter signed), tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, [[Musée du Louvre]].]] When Zeus' wife [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned [[Leto]] from giving birth on "terra firma". In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo. It is also stated that Hera kidnapped [[Eileithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards (8 m) long, of amber. Mythographers agree that [[Artemis]] was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day ({{lang|grc|ἑβδομαγενής}}, ''hebdomagenes'')<ref>{{LSJ|e(bdomagenh/s|ἑβδομαγενής|shortref}}.</ref> of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. ===Youth=== Four days after his birth, Apollo killed the [[chthonic]] dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]]. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged [[Hephaestus]] for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi.<ref>''Children of the Gods'' by Kenneth McLeish, page 32.</ref> Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. Hera then sent the giant [[Tityos]] to kill Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to [[Tartarus]]. There he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of {{convert|9|acre|m2}}, where a pair of [[vulture]]s feasted daily on his liver. ===Trojan War=== Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in retribution for [[Agamemnon]]'s insult to [[Chryses]], a priest of Apollo whose daughter [[Chryseis]] had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''. In the ''[[Iliad]]'', when [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]], Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. Apollo aided [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] in the killing of [[Achilles]] by guiding the arrow of his bow into [[Achilles]]' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering [[Troilus]], the god's own son by [[Hecuba]], on the very altar of the god's own temple. ===Admetus=== When Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]] from the dead (transgressing [[Themis]] by stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops|Cyclopes]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliothke]]'' iii. 10.4.</ref> Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of [[Penal labour|hard labor]], due to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as shepherd for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus. Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughter of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirai|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "''[[Coercion|persuade]]''" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living. [[File:Niobe JacquesLouisDavid 1772 Dallas Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|250px|''Artemis and Apollo Piercing Niobe's Children with their Arrows'' by [[Jacques-Louis David]], [[Dallas Museum of Art]]]] ===Niobe=== [[Niobe]], the queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Spil Mount|Mount Sipylos]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. ===Consorts and children=== Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology.<ref>"The love-stories themselves were not told until later." [[Karl Kerenyi]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951:140.</ref> Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination. ====Female lovers==== {{Main|Apollo and Daphne}} [[File:ApolloAndDaphne.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Apollo and Daphne]] by [[Bernini]] in the [[Galleria Borghese]]]] [[Daphne]] was a [[nymph]], daughter of the [[Sea and river deity|river god]] [[Peneus]], who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (''daphnē''), the [[Bay Laurel|laurel]] whose leaves his priestess employed at [[Delphi]].<ref>The ancient Daphne episode is noted in late narratives, notably in [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', in [[Hyginus]], ''[[Fabulae]]'', 203 and by the fourth-century-CE teacher of rhetoric and Christian convert, [[Libanius]], in ''Narrationes''.</ref> In [[Ovid]]'s [[Metamorphoses]], Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father, Peneus, for help, and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo. ''Artemis Daphnaia'', who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi<ref>G. Shipley, "The Extent of Spartan Territory in the Late Classical and Hellenistic Periods", ''The Annual of the British School at Athens'', 2000.</ref> in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier,<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], 3.24.8 ([http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias3B.html on-line text]); Lilius Gregorius Gyraldus, ''Historiae Deorum Gentilium'', Basel, 1548, Syntagma 10, is noted in this connection in [http://www.textlog.de/40739.html Benjamin Hederich, ''Gründliches mythologisches Lexikon'', 1770]</ref> had her own sacred laurel trees.<ref>[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'', 1951:141</ref> At [[Eretria]] the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to ''Apollo Daphnephoros'', "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", a "place where the citizens are to take the oath", is identified in inscriptions.<ref>Rufus B. Richardson, "A Temple in Eretria" ''The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts'', '''10'''.3 (July - September 1895:326-337); Paul Auberson, ''Eretria. Fouilles et Recherches I, Temple d'Apollon Daphnéphoros, Architecture'' (Bern, 1968). See also [[Plutarch]], ''Pythian Oracle'', 16.</ref> [[Leucothea]] was daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day. [[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. [[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the [[castalian Spring|spring]] at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last [[oracle]] is mentioned that the "water which could speak", has been lost for ever. By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives. [[Hecuba]], was the wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], and Apollo had a son with her named [[Troilus]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by [[Achilleus]]. [[Cassandra]], was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her. [[Coronis (Greek mythology)|Coronis]], was daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]]. Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]]. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did. In [[Euripides]]' play ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'', Apollo fathered [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] by [[Creusa]], wife of [[Xuthus]]. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked [[Hermes]] to save the child and bring him to the oracle at [[Delphi]], where he was raised by a priestess. [[Acantha]], was the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb. According to the ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Biblioteca]]'', the "library" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the [[Corybantes]] on the Muse [[Thalia (Muse)|Thalia]].<ref>Apollodorus, [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Apollodorus1.html ''Bibliotheca'', 1.3.4]. Other ancient sources, however, gave the Corybantes different parents; see [[James George Frazer|Sir James Frazer]]'s [http://www.theoi.com/Text/Ap1a.html#46 note] on the passage in the ''Bibliotheca''.</ref> ====Consorts and children: extended list==== <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> # [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] ## Amphithemis (Garamas)<ref>[[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 1491 ff</ref> ## Naxos, [[eponym]] of the island [[Naxos (island)|Naxos]]<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 1491 ff</ref> ## Phylacides ## Phylander<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 10. 16. 5</ref> # [[Acantha]] # [[Aethusa]] ## [[Eleuther]] # [[Aganippe]] ## Chios<ref>[[Pseudo-Plutarch]], ''On Rivers'', 7. 1</ref> # Alciope<ref>[[Photius]], ''Lexicon'' s. v. Linos</ref> ## Linus (possibly) # [[Amphissa (mythology)|Amphissa / Isse]], daughter of Macareus # Anchiale / [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] ## Oaxes<ref>[[Servius]] on [[Virgil]]'s Eclogue 1, 65</ref> # Areia, daughter of Cleochus / [[Acacallis (mythology)|Acacallis]] / Deione ## [[Miletus (mythology)|Miletus]] # Astycome, nymph ## Eumolpus (possibly)<ref>[[Photius]], ''Lexicon'', s. v. ''Eumolpidai''</ref> # Arsinoe, daughter of [[Leucippus]] ## [[Asclepius]] (possibly) ## [[Eriopis]] # Babylo ## Arabus<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'', 7. 56 - 57 p. 196</ref> # [[Bolina]] # [[Calliope]], Muse ## [[Orpheus]] (possibly) ## [[Linus (mythology)|Linus]] (possibly) ## [[Ialemus]] # [[Cassandra]] # [[Castalia]] # [[Celaeno]], daughter of Hyamus / [[Melaina]] / [[Thyia]] ## [[Delphus]] # [[Chione (daughter of Daedalion)|Chione]] / Philonis / [[Leuconoe]] ## [[Philammon]] # Chrysorthe ## [[Coronus (Greek mythology)|Coronus]] # Chrysothemis ## [[Parthenos (mythology)|Parthenos]] # [[Coronis (mythology)|Coronis]] ## [[Asclepius]] # [[Corycia|Coryceia]] ## [[Lycorus]] (Lycoreus) # [[Creusa]] ## [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] # [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]] ## [[Aristaeus]] ## [[Idmon]] (possibly) ## Autuchus<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'', 2. 498</ref> # Danais, Cretan nymph ## The [[Korybantes|Curetes]]<ref>[[Tzetzes]] on [[Lycophron]], 77</ref> # [[Daphne]] # Dia, daughter of [[Lycaon (Arcadia)|Lycaon]] ## Dryops # [[Dryope]] ## Amphissus # Euboea (daughter of Macareus of [[Locris]]) ## [[Agreus]] # [[Evadne]], daughter of Poseidon ## [[Iamus]] # [[Gryne]] # [[Hecate]] ## [[Scylla]] (possibly)<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''Argonautica'' 4.828, referring to "[[Hesiod]]", ''[[Megalai Ehoiai]]'' fr.</ref> # [[Hecuba]] ## [[Troilus]] ## [[Hector]] (possibly)<ref>[[Tzetzes]] on [[Lycophron]], 266</ref> # [[Hestia]] (wooed her unsuccessfully) # [[Hypermnestra#Daughter of Thestius and Eurythemis|Hypermnestra]], wife of [[Oicles]] ## [[Amphiaraus]] (possibly) # Hypsipyle<ref>[[Arnobius]], ''Adversus Nationes'', 4. 26; not the same as [[Hypsipyle]] of [[Lemnos]]</ref> # Hyria (Thyria) ## [[Cycnus#Son of Apollo|Cycnus]] # Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus ## Eicadius<ref>[[Servius]] on ''[[Aeneid]]'', 3. 332</ref> ## Patarus<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v. ''Patara''</ref> # [[Manto (mythology)|Manto]] ## [[Mopsus]] # [[Marpessa]] # [[Meliae|Melia]] ## Ismenus<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 9. 10. 5</ref> ## Tenerus<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 9. 26. 1</ref> # [[Ocyrhoe]] # [[Othreis]] ## Phager # Parnethia, nymph ## Cynnes<ref>[[Photius]], Lexicon, s. v. ''Kynneios''</ref> # Parthenope ## [[Lycomedes]] # Phthia ## Dorus ## [[Laodocus]] ## [[Polypoetes]] # Prothoe<ref>[[Arnobius]], ''Adversus Nationes'', 4. 26</ref> # [[Procleia]] ## [[Tenes]] (possibly) # [[Psamathe]] ## Linus, not the same as the singer Linus # [[Rhoeo]] ## [[Anius]] # Rhodoessa, nymph ## Ceos, eponym of the island [[Ceos]]<ref>''[[Etymologicum Magnum]]'' 507, 54, under ''Keios''</ref> # Rhodope ## Cicon, eponym of the tribe [[Cicones]]<ref>''[[Etymologicum Magnum]]'' 513, 37, under ''Kikones''</ref> # [[Sinope (mythology)|Sinope]] ## [[Syrus]] # [[Stilbe]] ## Centaurus ## [[Lapithes (hero)|Lapithes]] ## Aineus # Syllis / Hyllis ## [[Zeuxippus (mythology)|Zeuxippus]] # [[Thaleia]], Muse / Rhetia, nymph ## The [[Corybantes]] # Themisto, daughter of Zabius of [[Hyperborea]]<ref>Stephanus of Byzantium, s. v. ''Galeōtai''</ref> ## Galeotes ## Telmessus (?) # [[Thero (Greek mythology)|Thero]] ## Chaeron # [[Urania]], Muse ## Linus (possibly) # Urea, daughter of Poseidon ## Ileus ([[Oileus]]?) # Wife of [[Erginus]] ## [[Trophonius]] (possibly) # Unknown consorts ## [[Acraepheus]], eponym of the city Acraephia<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]], s. v. ''Akraiphia''</ref> ## [[Chariclo]] (possibly)<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Pindar]], Pythian Ode 4. 181</ref> ## [[Erymanthus (person)|Erymanthus]] ## Marathus, eponym of [[Marathon]]<ref>[[Suda]] s. v. Marathōn</ref> ## Megarus<ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v ''Megara''</ref> ## [[Melaneus]] ## [[Oncius]]<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', 8. 25. 4</ref><ref>[[Stephanus of Byzantium]] s. v. ''Ogkeion''</ref> ## [[Phemonoe]] ## Pisus, founder of [[Pisa]] in [[Etruria]]<ref>[[Servius]] on ''Aeneid'', 10. 179</ref> ## Younger Muses ### [[Cephisso]] ### [[Apollonis]] ### [[Borysthenis]] </div> ====Male lovers==== [[File:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|upright|''Apollo and Hyacinthus'', 16th-century Italian engraving by [[Jacopo Caraglio]]]] [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a [[Sparta]]n prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the [[Discus throw|discus]] when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous [[Zephyrus]] and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a [[hyacinth (plant)|flower]] named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection {{lang|grc|αἰαῖ}}, meaning ''alas''.<ref>{{LSJ|ai)ai{{=}}|αἰαῖ}}, {{LSJ|ai)/2|αἴ|shortref}}.</ref> The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta. Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[Pilum|javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the [[Cupressaceae|Cypress]] named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. Other male lovers of Apollo include: * [[Admetus]]<ref>[[Callimachus]], Hymn to Apollo, 49.</ref><ref name="Plutarch, Numa" /> * [[Atymnius]],<ref>[[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'', 11. 258; 19. 181.</ref> otherwise known as a beloved of [[Sarpedon]] * [[Branchus]] (alternately, a son of Apollo) * [[Carnus]] * Clarus<ref>[[Philostratus]], ''Letters'', 5. 3.</ref> * Hippolytus of [[Sicyon]] (not the same as [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]])<ref name="Plutarch, Numa">[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Numa'', 4. 5.</ref> * [[Hymenaios]]<ref>[[Antoninus Liberalis]], ''Metamorphoses'', 23.</ref> * [[Iapis]] * Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off<ref>[[Servius]] on ''[[Aeneid]]'', 3. 279.</ref> * [[Phorbas]] (probably the son of Triopas)<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Life of Numa'', 4. 5, cf. also [[Hyginus]], ''Poetical Astronomy'', 2. 14.</ref> * Potnieus<ref>[[Clement of Rome]], ''Homilia'', 5. 15.</ref> ===Apollo's lyre=== [[File:Apollo Kitharoidos Antikensammlung Berlin 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Apollo with his [[lyre]]. Statue from [[Pergamon Museum]], Berlin.]] [[Hermes]] was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]]. His mother, [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]]. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre. ===Apollo in the ''Oresteia''=== In [[Aeschylus]]' ''[[Oresteia]]'' trilogy, [[Clytemnestra]] kills her husband, [[King Agamemnon]] because he had sacrificed their daughter [[Iphigenia]] to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and [[Cassandra]], a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, [[Orestes]], is to kill Clytemnestra and [[Aegisthus]], her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the [[Erinyes]] (Furies, female personifications of [[revenge|vengeance]]). Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the [[matricide]] was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules with Apollo. ===Other stories=== Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mount Olympus (Mountain)|Mt. Olympus]]. [[Callimachus]] sang<ref>Callimachus, ''Hymn to Apollo''2.5</ref> that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperboreans]] during the winter months. Apollo turned [[Cephissus (mythology)|Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]]. Another contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of [[Paximadia (islands)|Paximadia]]. ====Musical contests==== =====Pan===== Once [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[kithara]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]]. =====Marsyas===== [[File:IAM 400T - Statue of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Marsyas]] under Apollo's punishment, [[Istanbul Archaeology Museums|İstanbul Archaeology Museum]]]] Apollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: [[Marsyas]] was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the [[Muse]]s. After they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the [[lyre]], this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo [[flaying|flayed]] Marsyas alive in a cave near [[Celaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river [[Marsyas (river)|Marsyas]]. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the [[flute]]), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.<ref>''Man Myth and Magic'' by Richard Cavendish</ref> =====Cinyras===== Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who committed suicide when he lost. [[File:Apollo Anzio Musei Capitolini MC286.jpg||thumb|upright=.75|left|Head of Apollo, marble, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 4th century BCE, from the collection of [[Cardinal Albani]]]] ===Roman Apollo=== The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]], Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as '''Phoebus'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theoi.com/Heroine/Koronis.html |title=Koronis |publisher=Theoi |accessdate=30 July 2013}}</ref> There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings of Rome]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]].<ref>[[Livy]] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Liv.+1.56 1.56].</ref> On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's [[Temple of Apollo Sosianus|first temple]] at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare".<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=3:chapter=63 3.63.7], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0145:book=4:chapter=25 4.25.3].</ref> During the [[Second Punic War]] in 212 BCE, the ''[[Ludi Apollinares]]'' ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius.<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0147:book=25:chapter=12 25.12].</ref> In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.<ref>{{cite book |author=J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz |title=Continuity and Change in Roman Religion |year=1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-814822-4 |pages=82–85 }}</ref> After the [[battle of Actium]], which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted [[quinquennial]] games in his honour.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars#Life of Augustus|Augustus]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#18.2 18.2]; [[Cassius Dio]] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html#1 51.1.1–3].</ref> He also erected [[Temple of Apollo (Palatine)|a new temple]] to the god on the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine hill]].<ref>Cassius Dio [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#1.3 53.1.3].</ref> Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] formed the culmination of the [[Secular Games]], held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.<ref>''[[Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae]]'' 5050, translated by {{cite book |last1=Beard |first1=Mary |authorlink=Mary Beard (classicist) |last2=North |first2=John |last3=Price |first3=Simon |title=Religions of Rome: Volume 2: A Sourcebook |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-45015-2|page=5.7b }}</ref> ==Festivals== The chief Apollonian festivals were the [[Boedromia]], [[Carneia]], Carpiae, [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia (festival)|Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Metageitnia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]]. ==Attributes and symbols== [[File:Ai-Khanoum-gold stater of Antiochos1.jpg|thumb|250px|Gold stater of the [[Seleucid]] king [[Antiochus I Soter]] (reigned 281–261 BCE) showing on the reverse a nude Apollo holding his key attributes: two arrows and a bow]] Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and [[arrow]]. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]), the [[plectrum]] and the sword. Another common emblem was the [[sacrificial tripod]], representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[bay laurel]] plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the [[laurel wreath|crown of victory]] at these games. The [[palm tree]] was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included [[wolf|wolves]], dolphins, [[roe deer]], [[swan]]s, [[cicada]]s (symbolizing music and song), [[hawk]]s, [[raven]]s, [[crow]]s, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin. [[File:Apolocitaredo8.jpg|thumb|250px||''[[Apollo Citharoedus]]'' ("Apollo with a kithara"), [[Musei Capitolini]], Rome]] As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists found the city of [[Troy]]. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of [[Wilusa]] attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Ilion]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]). In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives [[Apollonian and Dionysian]]. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for [[Hyperborea]], he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the [[Borghese Vase]]. Apollo is often associated with the [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden Mean]]. This is the Greek [[Ideal (ethics)|ideal]] of [[moderation]] and a [[virtue]] that opposes [[gluttony]]. ==Apollo in the arts== [[File:Apollo Saurocton Louvre.jpg|thumb|180px|The Louvre ''Apollo Sauroctonos'', Roman copy after [[Praxiteles]] (360 BC)]] '''Apollo''' is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the [[Renaissance]]. The earliest Greek word for a statue is "delight" ({{lang|grc|ἄγαλμα}}, ''agalma''), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into '''Apollo''' the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought. The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world. The evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal [[Kouros]] type in [[Archaic period in Greece|early archaic period]], to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in [[Archaic period in Greece|late archaic period]]. In [[classical Greece]] the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by [[Polykleitos]]. Finally [[Praxiteles]] seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of [[Realism (arts)|naturalism]] with stylization. ===Art and Greek philosophy=== The evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of [[Thales]] to the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] theory of [[Pythagoras]]. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older [[animism]]. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.<ref name="Homann63">E. Homann-Wedeking. Transl. J.R. Foster (1968). ''Art of the world. Archaic Greece'', Methuen & Co Ltd. London, pp 63-65, 193.</ref> Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.<ref>C.M. Bowra (1957). ''The Greek experience'', p.166.</ref> The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations ({{lang|grc|εἰκόνες}}, ''eikones'', "images") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art, and the Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection.<ref name="Carpenter55">R. Carpenter (1975). ''The esthetic basis of Greek art''. Indiana University Press. p. 55-58.</ref> ([[Aesthetic canon|canon]]). In classical Greece, [[Anaxagoras]] asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and [[Plato]] extended the Greek belief of ''ideal forms'' to his metaphysical theory of ''forms'' (''ideai'', "ideas"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words ''oida'' ({{lang|grc|οἶδα}}, "(I) know") and ''eidos'' ({{lang|grc|εἶδος}}, "species") have the same root as the word ''idea'' ({{lang|grc|ἰδέα}}),<ref name =Carpenter55/> indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual. ===Archaic sculpture=== [[File:KAMA Kouros Porte Sacrée.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Sacred Gate Kouros, marble (610–600 BC), [[Kerameikos|Kerameikos Archaeological Museum in Athens]]]] [[Kouros]] (''male youth'') is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the [[archaic period in Greece]]. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of ''Apollo''.<ref>V.I. Leonardos(1895). ''Archaelogiki Ephimeris'', Col 75, n 1.</ref><ref>Lechat (1904). ''La sculpture Attic avant Phidias'', p. 23.</ref> The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the [[Egypt]]ian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods.<ref name="Bowra144">C.M. Bowra (1957). ''The Greek experience'', pp. 144-152.</ref> The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ''ideal forms'' that can be imagined and represented.<ref name=Carpenter55/> These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ''ideal balance and order''. His shrine in [[Delphi]], that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: {{lang|grc|γνῶθι σεαυτόν}} (gnōthi seautón = "know thyself") and {{lang|grc|μηδὲν ἄγαν}} (''mēdén ágan'', "nothing in excess"), and {{lang|grc|ἐγγύα πάρα δ'ἄτη}} (eggýa pára d'atē, "make a pledge and mischief is nigh").<ref>See {{LSJ|a)/th|ἄτη|shortref}}.</ref> [[File:WLA metmuseum Marble statue of a kouros youth 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|New York Kouros, Met. Mus. 32.11.1, marble (620–610 BC), [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]] In the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost [[animism|animistic]] idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself.<ref>C.M. Bowra. ''The Greek experience'', p.159.</ref> A fine example is the statue of the ''Sacred gate Kouros'' which was found at the cemetery of [[Dipylon]] in Athens ([[Dipylon]] [[Kouros]]). The statue is the "thing in itself", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the [[Dipylon|Dipylon master]] was named [[Daedalus]], and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the ''New York kouros'', which is the oldest fully preserved statue of ''Kouros'' type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.<ref name=Homann63/> [[File:7262 - Piraeus Arch. Museum, Athens - The Piraeus Apollo - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 14 2009.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Piraeus Apollo]], archaic-style bronze, [[Archaeological Museum of Piraeus]]]] The animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the [[Homeric]] poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god [[Hephaestus]] ([[Phaistos]]) and the mythic [[Daedalus]] (the builder of the [[labyrinth]]) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment.<ref name="Schachermeyer242">F. Schachermeyer (1964). ''Die Minoische Kultur des alten Creta'', Kohlhammer Stuttgart, pp. 242-244.</ref> These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta. The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the [[Ionians|Ionic]] sanctuary on the island of [[Delos]]. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of ''Apollo Ptoios'', [[Boeotia]] alone.<ref>J. Ducat (1971). ''Les Kouroi des Ptoion''.</ref> The last stage in the development of the ''Kouros type'' is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze [[Piraeus Apollo]]. It was found in [[Piraeus]], the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern [[Peloponnesus]]. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler, and heavier style, restricts [[Ionia]]n influence in Athens. Finally, this is the germ from which the art of [[Polykleitos]] was to grow two or three generations later.<ref name="Homann144">Homann-Wedeking (1966). ''Art of the World. Archaic Greece'' pp. 144-150.</ref> ===Classical Sculpture=== [[File:Apollon de Mantoue Louvre MA689.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Apollo of the "Mantoua type", marble Roman copy after a 5th-century-BC Greek original attributed to [[Polykleitos]], Musée du Louvre]] In the next century which is the beginning of the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]], it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment ([[Myron]]), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] element.<ref name=Schachermeyer242/> Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. [[Polykleitos]] in his ''Canon'' wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of [[Pythagoras]].<ref>"Each part (finger, palm, arm, etc) transmitted its individual existence to the next, and then to the whole" : ''Canon of [[Polykleitos]]'', also [[Plotinus]], ''Ennead'' I vi. i: Nigel Spivey (1997). ''Greek art'', Phaidon Press Ltd. London. pp. 290-294.</ref> The famous ''Apollo of Mantua'' and its variants are early forms of the [[Apollo Citharoedus]] statue type, in which the god holds the [[cithara]] in his left arm. The type is represented by [[neo-Attic]] Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of [[Polykleitos]] but more archaic. The Apollo held the ''cythara'' against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps. Though the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] period, and in the beliefs of the first [[Greek language|Greek]] speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self.<ref name=Homann63/> Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity. ===Pediments and Friezes=== [[File:Apollo west pediment Olympia copy MFA Munich.jpg|thumb|upright|Apollo, West Pediment Olympia. Munich, copy from original, 460 BC at the [[Temple of Zeus]], [[Olympia, Greece]].]] In the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base. The [[Siphnian Treasury]] in [[Delphi]] was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of [[Heracles]] stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of [[Zeus]] in [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.<ref name=Bowra144/> [[File:Part of the Bassae Frieze at the British Museum.jpg|thumb|left|Part of the [[Bassae Frieze]] at the [[British Museum]]. Apollo and Artemis in the northeast corner.]] These representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and fro a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.<ref name=Bowra144/> ===Hellenistic Greece-Rome=== Apollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a [[kithara]] (as [[Apollo Citharoedus]]) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the [[Apollo Lykeios]] and [[Apollo Sauroctonos]] types). The [[Apollo Belvedere]] is a [[marble]] sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of [[Classical Antiquity]] for Europeans, from the [[Renaissance]] through the 19th century. The marble is a [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor [[Leochares]], made between 350 and 325 BCE. The life-size so-called "[[Adonis]]" found in 1780 on the site of a ''[[Roman villa|villa suburbana]]'' near the [[Via Labicana]] in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman ''Thysdrus'', he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]], though now even a god's divine [[nudity|nakedness]] is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from [[Hadrumentum]], is in the museum at [[Sousse]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080708143541/http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |title=Mosaics in Tunisia,Apollo and the Muses |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=8 July 2008 |accessdate=30 July 2013}}</ref> The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling [[Hairstyle|hair cut]] in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]].<ref>Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980.</ref> Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed. ==Modern reception== [[File:Onthemorningthomas4.jpg|thumb|''The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods'', watercolour from [[William Blake's illustrations of On the Morning of Christ's Nativity|William Blake's illustrations of ''On the Morning of Christ's Nativity'']] (1809)]] Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s ''[[Apollon musagète]]'' (1927–1928). In discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the [[Apollonian and Dionysian]] impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. [[Carl Jung]]'s [[Apollo archetype]] represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance. ==Genealogy of the Olympians in Greek mythology== {{Genealogy of the Olympians in Greek mythology}} ==See also== *[[Dryad]] *[[Epirus]] *[[Pasiphaë]] *[[Sibylline oracles]] *[[Tegyra]] *[[Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|20em}} ==References== * {{EB1911 |wstitle=Apollo |author=John Henry Freese}} ===Primary sources=== [[File:Belvedere Apollo Pio-Clementino Inv1015 n3.jpg|thumb|Head of the ''[[Apollo Belvedere]]'']] * [[Homer]], ''Iliad'' ii.595–600 (c. 700 BCE) * [[Sophocles]], ''Oedipus Rex'' * [[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE) * Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' 1.3.3 (140 BCE) * [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE) * [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (160–176 CE) * [[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) * [[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) * [[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (170 CE) * [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae ===Secondary sources=== * M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art''. Chicago. * Hugh Bowden, 2005. ''Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy''. Cambridge University Press. * [[Walter Burkert]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 ''passim'' * {{cite book| author = Fritz Graf| title = Apollo| year = 2009| publisher = Taylor & Francis US| isbn = 978-0-415-31711-5 }} * [[Robert Graves]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'', revised edition. Penguin. * Miranda J. Green, 1997. ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson. * [[Karl Kerenyi]], 1953. ''Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität'' revised edition. * Karl Kerenyi, 1951. ''The Gods of the Greeks'' * Martin Nilsson, 1955. ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion'', vol. I. C.H. Beck. * [[Pauly–Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft'': II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert). * Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. ''Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst''. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo. * [[William Smith (lexicographer)|Smith, William]]; ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]'', London (1873). [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=heracles-bio-1&highlight=orthrus "Apollo"] ==External links== {{Commons|Apollo}} {{Wiktionary|Apollo}} * [http://www.maicar.com/GML/Apollo.html Apollo] at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada * [http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/vpc/VPC_search/subcats.php?cat_1=5&cat_2=80 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 1650 images of Apollo] {{Greek religion}} {{Roman religion}} [[Category:Apollo| ]] [[Category:Arts gods]] [[Category:Deities in the Iliad]] [[Category:Dragonslayers]] [[Category:Health gods]] [[Category:Knowledge gods]] [[Category:LGBT history in Greece]] [[Category:LGBT themes in mythology]] [[Category:Muses]] [[Category:Mythological Greek archers]] [[Category:Mythological rapists]] [[Category:Oracular gods]] [[Category:Roman gods]] [[Category:Solar gods]] {{Link GA|no}} {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|ia}} {{Link FA|pt}} gedohrey4vidowkffmk18xuyk6i6si1 wikitext text/x-wiki 0 595 601751621 601097378 2014-03-29T02:54:30Z Bloom6132 12035559 /* Records */ fixed dead link {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox tennis biography |name = Andre Agassi |image = Andre Agassi Indian Wells 2006.jpg |fullname = Andre Kirk Agassi |nickname = |country = {{USA}} |residence = [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]] |birth_date = {{birth date and age|1970|04|29}} |birth_place = Las Vegas, Nevada |height = {{convert|5|ft|11|in|cm|abbr=on}} |weight = {{convert|177|lb|kg|abbr=on}} |turnedpro = 1986 |retired = 3 September 2006 |plays = Right-handed (two-handed backhand) |careerprizemoney = [[US$|$]]31,152,975 *<small>[[ATP Tour records#Earnings|5th all-time leader in earnings]]</small> |tennishofyear = 2011 |tennishofid = andre-agassi |singlesrecord = 870–274 <small>(76.05% on the [[Grand Prix tour]], [[ATP Tour]], in [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slams]] and [[Davis Cup]])</small> |singlestitles = 60 <small>(in Grand Prix and ATP Tour play and 68 in total)</small> |highestsinglesranking = No. '''1''' ( 10 April 1995) |AustralianOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1995 Australian Open – Men's Singles|1995]], [[2000 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2000]], [[2001 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2001]], [[2003 Australian Open – Men's Singles|2003]]) |FrenchOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1999 French Open – Men's Singles|1999]]) |Wimbledonresult = '''W''' ([[1992 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|1992]]) |USOpenresult = '''W''' ([[1994 US Open – Men's Singles|1994]], [[1999 US Open – Men's Singles|1999]]) |Othertournaments = Yes |MastersCupresult = '''W''' ([[1990 ATP Tour World Championships|1990]]) |Olympicsresult = [[File:Gold medal.svg|20px]] '''Gold Medal''' ([[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Men's Singles|1996]]) |doublesrecord = 40-42<small> (on the [[Grand Prix tour]], [[ATP Tour]], in [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]]s and [[Davis Cup]]) |doublestitles = 1 |grandslamsdoublesresults = yes |FrenchOpenDoublesresult = QF (1992) |USOpenDoublesresult = 1R (1987) |highestdoublesranking = No. 123 (17 August 1992) |Team=yes |DavisCupresult = '''W''' (1990, 1992, 1995) }} {{MedalTop}} {{MedalSport|Men's [[Tennis at the Summer Olympics|tennis]]}} {{MedalCountry|{{USA}}}} {{MedalGold|[[1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Atlanta]]|[[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Men's singles|Singles]]}} {{MedalBottom}} '''Andre Kirk Agassi''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|n|d|r|eɪ|_|ˈ|æ|ɡ|ə|s|i}}; born 29 April 1970, in [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]]) is an American retired professional tennis player and former [[List of ATP number 1 ranked singles players|World No. 1]], who was one of the game's most dominant players from the early 1990s to the mid-2000s.<ref name="bio">{{cite web|url=http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/andre-agassi.html|title=Bio:Andre Agassi|publisher=[[Biography Channel]]|accessdate=27 January 2011}}</ref> Generally considered by critics and fellow players to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time,<ref name="SI">{{cite news |title=Top 10 Men's Tennis Players of All Time|work=Sports Illustrated |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/multimedia/photo_gallery/1009/top.ten.tennis/content.4.html|accessdate=21 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="tennis">{{cite journal | title=Tennis Magazine: 40 Greatest Players | publisher=Tennis Magazine | year=December 2005}}</ref><ref name="cba">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/sports/columns/newsmakers/andre-agassi.html|title=Tennis's love affair with Agassi comes to an end|publisher=[[CBC Sports]]|accessdate=15 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/3030108/Grand-slammed.html|title=Grand-slammed|work=The Daily Telegraph (London)|accessdate=15 May 2010|first=John|last=Parsons|date=26 June 2002| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100525021835/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/3030108/Grand-slammed.html| archivedate= 25 May 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref name="stars">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/5113548.stm "Stars pay tribute to Agassi"]. [[BBC]]. Retrieved 15 May 2010.</ref> Agassi has been called the best service returner in the history of the game.<ref name="cba"/><ref>[http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/tennis/simon-reed/article/1176/ "Reed's shotmakers: Men's return of serve"]. [[Yahoo! Sports]]. Retrieved 15 May 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/13/sports/tennis/13tv.html "Adjectives Tangled in the Net"]. ''[[The New York Times]]''. Retrieved 15 May 2010.</ref><ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/1995-03-14/sports/sp-42741_1_andre-agassi?pg=1 "Sampras, Agassi Have Just Begun to Fight"] ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''. Retrieved 15 May 2010.</ref> Described by the [[BBC]] upon his retirement as "perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history",<ref name="stars"/> Agassi compiled performances that, along with his unorthodox apparel and attitude, saw him cited as one of the most charismatic players in the history of the game. As a result, he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s.<ref name="cba"/><ref name="stars"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/dont-walk-away-andre-charismatic-gifts-of-agassi-should-not-be-allowed-to-slip-through-net-406318.html|title=Don't Walk Away, Andre|work=The Independent |location=UK|date=2 July 2006|accessdate=6 June 2011|first=Ronald|last=Atkin| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110606110540/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/dont-walk-away-andre-charismatic-gifts-of-agassi-should-not-be-allowed-to-slip-through-net-406318.html| archivedate= 6 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> In singles tennis, Agassi is an eight-time [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] champion and a [[Tennis at the 1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Olympic gold medalist]], as well as finishing runner-up in seven other Grand Slam tournaments. His four [[Australian Open]] titles are an [[History of tennis#Open Era|Open Era]] record (shared with Novak Djokovic and Roger Federer). He is one of four male singles players to achieve the [[Grand Slam (tennis)#Career Grand Slam|Career Grand Slam]] (all four Grand Slam championships) in the Open Era and one of seven in history,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/olympics_blog/2008/08/federer-gets-hi.html|title=Roger Federer gets his gold medal|publisher=Latimesblogs.latimes.com|date=16 August 2008|accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atpworldtour.com/News/Tennis/2010/09/36-US-Open-Week-2/US-Open-Monday-Final-Nadal-Completes-Career-Slam.aspx|title=Nadal Completes Career Grand Slam With US Open Title|publisher=ATP Tennis|accessdate=27 January 2011}}</ref> the first of two to achieve the [[Career Golden Slam]] (Career Grand Slam and Olympic gold medal), and the only man to win the Career Golden Slam and the [[ATP World Tour Finals|ATP Tour World Championships]] (won in [[1990 ATP Tour World Championships|1990]]): a distinction dubbed as a "Career Super Slam" by ''[[Sports Illustrated]]''.<ref name="SI"/> Agassi was the first male player to win all four Grand Slams on three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and the last American male to win the French Open (1999)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fft.fr/rolandgarros/default_en.asp?ID=1576|title=Singles winners from 1925 to 2005|publisher=[[French Open|Roland Garros]]|accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> and the Australian Open (2003).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.australianopen.com/en_AU/event_guide/history/players/107.html|title=Australian Open – Past Men's Singles Champions|publisher=Australian Open|accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> He also won 17 [[ATP World Tour Masters 1000|ATP Masters Series]] titles and was part of a winning [[Davis Cup]] team in [[1990 Davis Cup|1990]], [[1992 Davis Cup|1992]] and [[1995 Davis Cup|1995]].<ref name="tennis"/> Agassi was troubled by personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank to World No. 141 in 1997, prompting many to believe that his career was over.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi, however, returned to World No. 1 in 1999 and enjoyed the most successful run of his career over the next four years. During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known by the nickname "The Punisher".<ref>Jhabvala, Nick. [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/extramustard/10/30/chad-ochocinco-andre-agassi-tale/index.html "Tale of the Tape"]. ''[[Sports Illustrated]]''. 2 November 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref><ref>Mehrotra, Abhishek. [http://www.espnstar.com/editorial/news/detail/item640226/Agassi:-Last-of-the-great-Americans/ "Agassi: Last of the great Americans"]. ''[[espnstar.com|ESPN Star]]''. Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref><ref>[http://sports.in.msn.com/gallery/nickometer-popular-nicknames-in-the-world-of-sport?page=37 "Nickometer: Popular nicknames in the world of sport"]. [[MSN|MSN Sport]]. 3 May 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref><ref>Calvert, Sean. [http://betting.betfair.com/tennis/australian-open-betting/australian-open-betting-the-best-finals-ever-100111.html "Australian Open Betting: The best finals ever"]. [[Betfair]]. 10 January 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref> After suffering from [[sciatica]] caused by two bulging discs in his back, a [[spondylolisthesis]] ([[vertebrae|vertebral]] displacement) and a [[bone spur]] that interfered with the [[nerve]], Agassi retired from professional tennis on 3 September 2006, after losing in the third round of the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]]. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agassifoundation.org/|title=Andre Agassi Foundation For Education|accessdate =26 January 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20101224192909/http://www.agassifoundation.org/| archivedate= 24 December 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> which has raised over $60&nbsp;million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atptennis.com/en/players/tribute/agassi/agassi_charity.asp |publisher=ATP Tour, Inc. |title=Tribute to a legend: Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation |accessdate =15 February 2007}}</ref> In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K-12 public [[charter school]] for at-risk children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agassiprep.org |publisher=Andre Agassi Preparatory Academy |title=Homepage of |accessdate =15 February 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070225092139/http://www.agassiprep.org/| archivedate= 25 February 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> He has been married to fellow tennis star [[Steffi Graf]] since 2001. ==1970–1985: Early life== Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada to [[Emmanuel Agassi|Emmanuel "Mike" Agassi]] and Elizabeth "Betty" Agassi (née Dudley).<ref name="bio"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/bio/andre_agassi.shtml|title=Andre Agassi Biography|publisher=Netglimpse.com|accessdate=14 August 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070911163118/http://www.netglimse.com/celebs/bio/andre_agassi.shtml| archivedate= 11 September 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> His father, a former Olympic boxer for [[Iran]], is of [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] descent.<ref name="persianbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm|title=Bio:Andre Agassi|publisher=Persian Mirror|accessdate=27 January 2011|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5gzbWaTky|archivedate = 23 May 2009|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref name="zindamagazine.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/archives/1995/zn082895.html|title=400 ASSYRIAN ATHLETES IN THE STATE OLYMPICS|publisher=ZENDA renamed Zinda Magazine in 1999|date=28 August 1995|accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="peoplebio">{{cite web|url=http://www.peopleandprofiles.com/ProfilesDet-28/Andre+Agassi.html?profile_id=127|title=Andre Agassi Profile|publisher=Peopleandprofiles.com|accessdate=6 June 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110715063938/http://www.peopleandprofiles.com/ProfilesDet-28/Andre+Agassi.html?profile_id=127| archivedate= 15 July 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5R1y1nvcWccC&pg=PA278&lpg=PA278&dq=andre+aghassi+Armenian+-wikipedia.org|title=Aramaic (Assyrian/Syriac) dictionary|accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agassi.fr/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=527|title=The man behind Andre|accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> Andre Agassi's mother, Betty, is a breast cancer survivor. He has three older siblings – Rita (last wife to [[Pancho Gonzales]]), Philip and Tami.<ref>{{cite web|title=Andre Agassi|url=http://www.persianmirror.com/culture/famous/bios/andreagassi.cfm|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5gzbWaTky|work=PersianMirror|publisher=PersianMirror|year=2004|archivedate=23 May 2009|accessdate=23 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dcourier.com/main.asp?SectionID=2&SubSectionID=2&ArticleID=127375 |title= Column: Q&A with Rita Agassi; a tennis life and journey |publisher=''The Daily Courier'' |author=Howard, Chris |date=14 January 2014 |accessdate=25 January 2014 }}</ref> In a passage from the book ''Open'', Agassi details how his father made him play a match for money with football legend [[Jim Brown]], in 1979, when Agassi was 9 years old. Brown was at a Vegas tennis club complaining to the owner about a money match that was canceled. Agassi's father stepped in and told Brown that he could play his son and he would put up his house for the wager. Brown countered with a $10,000 bet, but after he was warned by the club owner not to take the bet because he would lose and be embarrassed, Brown agreed with Mike Agassi that they would set the amount after he and Andre played two sets. Brown lost those sets, 3–6, 3–6, declined the 10K wager, and offered to play the third set for $500. He lost 2–6.<ref name=Open>{{cite book|last=Agassi|first=Andre|title=Open: An Autobiography|year=2010|publisher=Vintage|location=London|isbn=978-0-307-38840-7|pages=50–53}}</ref> At age 13, Andre was sent to [[Nick Bollettieri]]'s Tennis Academy in Florida.<ref name="greatath">{{cite book|last1=Jensen|first1=Jeffry|editor1-first=Dawn P|editor1-last=Dawson|title=Great Athletes|edition=Revised|volume=1|year=2002|origyear=1992|publisher=Salem Press|isbn=1-58765-008-8|pages=17–19}}</ref> He was meant to stay for only 3 months because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri called Mike and said: "Take your check back. He's here for free," claiming that Agassi had more natural talent than anyone else he had seen.<ref name="lxbpdn">{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/magazine/08/30/agassi0717/index.html |publisher=Gary Smith for Sports Illustrated|title=Coming Into Focus|accessdate=15 February 2007|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5mr2GHwNg|archivedate = 17 January 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref> Agassi dropped out of school in the ninth grade.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/books/12agassi.html|work=The New York Times|title=A Team, but Watch How You Put It|first=Charles|last=McGrath|date=12 November 2009|accessdate=5 May 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100415171054/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/books/12agassi.html?| archivedate= 15 April 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> ==International tennis career biography== ===1986–1993=== {{BLP sources section|date=August 2011}} He turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at [[La Quinta, California]]. He won his first match against [[John Austin (tennis)|John Austin]], but then lost his second match to [[Mats Wilander]]. By the end of the year, Agassi was ranked world no. 91.<ref name="Tennis28">{{cite web|url=http://www.tennis28.com/rankings/history/agassi.html|title=Tennis28-Bio:Andre Agassi|accessdate=12 June 2009|publisher=Tennis28 }}</ref> He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the [[ATP Itaparica|Sul American Open]] in [[Itaparica]]<ref name="greatath" /> and ended the year ranked world no. 25.<ref name="greatath" /> He won six additional tournaments in 1988 (Memphis, [[1988 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships|U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships]], [[World Championship Tennis#WCT 1988|Forest Hills WCT]], Stuttgart Outdoor, [[1988 Volvo International|Volvo International]] and [[1988 Livingston Open|Livingston Open]]),<ref name="greatath" /> and, by December of that year, he had surpassed US$1&nbsp;million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments—the fastest anyone in history had reached that level.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1152468/bio Andre Agassi – Biography<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> During the year, he set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager, a record that stood for 17 years until [[Rafael Nadal]] broke it in 2005.<ref>{{cite news|title=Teen Nadal gives Spain reign over French Open|date=5 June 2006|url=http://www.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/french/2005-06-05-day-14_x.htm|agency=Associated Press (USA Today)|accessdate =6 April 2010}}</ref> His year-end ranking was world no. 3, behind second-ranked [[Ivan Lendl]] and top-ranked [[Mats Wilander]]. Both the [[Association of Tennis Professionals]] and ''Tennis'' magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988.<ref name="greatath" /> In addition to not playing the Australian Open (which later became his best Grand Slam event) for the first eight years of his career, Agassi chose not to play at [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white" dress code to which players at the event are required to conform. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semifinals of both the French Open and the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] in 1988 and made the US Open semifinals in 1989. He began the 1990s, however, with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to [[Andrés Gómez]]. He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion [[Boris Becker]] in the semifinals. His opponent in the final was [[Pete Sampras]]; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets.<ref name="greatath" /> The rivalry between these two American players became the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest of the decade. Also in 1990, Agassi helped the United States win its first [[Davis Cup]] in 8 years and won his only [[Tennis Masters Cup]], beating reigning Wimbledon champion [[Stefan Edberg]] in the final. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final, where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus [[Jim Courier]]. Courier emerged the victor in a five-set final. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion, losing in five sets to [[David Wheaton]]. Agassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the US Open, where he had previously enjoyed success. In 1992, he defeated [[Goran Ivanišević]] in a five-set final.<ref name="greatath" /> Along the way, Agassi overcame two former Wimbledon champions: [[Boris Becker]] and [[John McEnroe]]. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until [[Lleyton Hewitt]] ten years later. Agassi was named the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality|BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]] in 1992. Agassi once again played on the United States' [[Davis Cup]] winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. 1993 saw Agassi win the only doubles title of his career, at the [[Cincinnati Masters]], partnered with [[Petr Korda]]. Agassi missed much of the early part of that year with injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense, he lost to eventual champion and world no. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to [[Thomas Enqvist]] and required wrist surgery late in the year. ===1994–1997=== With new coach [[Brad Gilbert]] on board, Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach, which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless, he emerged during the hard-court season, winning the [[Canada Masters|Canadian Open]]. His comeback culminated at the [[1994 US Open (tennis)|1994 US Open]] with a five-set fourth-round victory against compatriot [[Michael Chang]]. He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an [[Seed (tennis)|unseeded]] player, beating [[Michael Stich]] in the final.<ref name="greatath" /> In 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old "image is everything" style. He competed in the [[1995 Australian Open]] (his first appearance at the event) and won, beating Sampras in a four-set final.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on [[hardcourt]], with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 ([[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]], [[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]], and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total.<ref name="greatath" /> He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit, which ended when he lost the [[1995 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] final to Sampras. Agassi reached the [[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|world no. 1]] ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 matches and lost 9. Agassi was also once again a key player on the United States' [[Davis Cup]] winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of Agassi's career. 1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses at the hands of compatriots [[Chris Woodruff]] and [[Doug Flach]] at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively, and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semifinals. At the time, Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions, but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose, as he did not want to play [[Boris Becker]], whom he would have faced in that final. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the [[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta]], beating [[Sergi Bruguera]] of Spain in the final.<ref name="greatath" /> Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne. 1997 was the low point of Agassi's career. His wrist injury resurfaced, and he played only 24 matches during the year. He later confessed that he started using [[methamphetamine|crystal methamphetamine]] at that time, allegedly on the urging of a friend.<ref name="sports.espn.go.com">{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=4600027|title=Andre Agassi book says he used crystal meth|publisher=[[ESPN]]|accessdate=27 January 2011}}</ref> He failed an ATP drug test, but wrote a letter claiming the same friend had spiked a drink. The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning. In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/8329193.stm|publisher=BBC News|title=Agassi admits use of crystal meth|date=28 October 2009|accessdate=30 March 2010}}</ref> He quit the drug soon after. At this time Agassi was also in a failing marriage with actress [[Brooke Shields]] and had lost interest in the game.<ref>Andre Agassi interview. ''[[The Ellen DeGeneres Show]]''. 19 November 2009.</ref> He won no top-level titles, and his ranking sank to world no. 141 on 10 November 1997, prompting many to believe that his run as one of the sport's premier competitors was over and that he would never again win any significant championships.<ref name="greatath" /> ===1998–2003=== [[File:Agassi-Auopen2005.jpg|thumb|Agassi serving]] In 1998, Agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments, a circuit for pro players ranked outside the world's top 50. He also played classic matches in this period against [[Pete Sampras]] and [[Patrick Rafter]]. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from world no. 110 to no. 6, the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a calendar year.<ref name="atpbio">{{cite web|url=http://www.atptennis.com/5/en/players/playerprofiles/highlights.asp?playernumber=A092|title=Andre Agassi player profile|publisher=Atptennis.com|accessdate=6 June 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110608193305/http://www.atptennis.com/5/en/players/playerprofiles/highlights.asp?playernumber=A092| archivedate= 8 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to [[Tommy Haas]]. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the [[Miami Masters|Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne]], losing to [[Marcelo Ríos]], who became world no. 1 as a result. Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat [[Andrei Medvedev]] in a five-set French Open final, becoming, at the time, only the fifth male player (joining [[Rod Laver]], [[Fred Perry]], [[Roy Emerson]] and [[Don Budge]]—these have since been joined by a sixth, [[Roger Federer]] and a seventh, [[Rafael Nadal]]) to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver, Agassi, Federer and Nadal have achieved this feat during the [[History of tennis#Open Era|open era]]. This win also made him the first (of only three, the second and third being [[Roger Federer]] and [[Rafael Nadal]] respectively) male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard courts), a tribute to his adaptability, as the other four men won their Grand Slam titles on clay and grass courts. Agassi also became the first (of only two, the second being [[Rafael Nadal]]) male player to win the [[Career Golden Slam]], consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal. Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets.<ref name="greatath" /> He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the [[1999 US Open (tennis)|US Open]], beating [[Todd Martin]] in five sets (rallying from a two sets to one deficit) in the final. Agassi ended 1999 as the world no. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–1998).<ref name="greatath" /> This was the only time Agassi ended the year at no. 1. He began the next year by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating Sampras in a five-set semifinal and [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] in a four-set final.<ref name="greatath" /> He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since [[Rod Laver]] achieved the Grand Slam in 1969.{{#tag:ref|[[Roger Federer]] has since surpassed this feat, reaching ten consecutive Grand Slam finals from 2005–2007.|group=lower-alpha}} At the time, Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events, missing only the Wimbledon title.{{#tag:ref|[[Pete Sampras]] held the 1993 Wimbledon, 1993 [[1993 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] and [[1994 Australian Open]] titles simultaneously. [[Jimmy Connors]] (1974), [[Roger Federer]] (2004, 2006 and 2007) and [[Novak Djokovic]] (2011) won those three Majors in the same year, although Connors' Grand Slam titles were all played on [[Tennis court#Grass courts|grass courts]]. [[Mats Wilander]] won all but Wimbledon in 1988 during his similar rise to the year-end world no. 1. [[Rafael Nadal]] won the French Open and Wimbledon "Channel Slam" (2008) and 2009 Australian Open, before replicating the Channel Slam alongside winning the US Open in 2010.|group=lower-alpha}} 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semifinals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742067.stm|title=Classic Matches: Rafter v Agassi|date=31 May 2004|accessdate=25 October 2007|publisher=BBC Sport|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5mr2GUooH|archivedate = 17 January 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref> At the inaugural [[2000 Tennis Masters Cup|Tennis Masters Cup]] in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating [[Marat Safin]] in the semifinals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest world no. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to [[Gustavo Kuerten]] in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end world no. 1. Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over [[Arnaud Clément]].<ref name="greatath" /> En route, he beat a cramping Rafter in five sets in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semifinals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set. In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3 hour, 33&nbsp;minute epic match<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/sampras_agassi|title=Believe the hype|work=Sports Illustrated|date=6 September 2001|accessdate=6 June 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110604013156/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/sampras_agassi| archivedate= 4 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/2001/us_open/news/2001/09/05/agassi_sidebar_ap|title=Unbreakable|date=6 September 2001|work=Sports Illustrated|accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> with no breaks of serve during the 48-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked world no. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportsline.com/tennis/players/playerpage/201490/2006|title=SportsLine:Andre Agassi|year=2006|publisher=Sportsline|accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> (1980s—finishing world no. 3 in 1988 and no. 7 in 1989; 1990s—finishing world no. 4 in 1990, no. 10 in 1991, no. 9 in 1992, no. 2 in 1994 and 1995, no. 8 in 1996, no. 6 in 1998 and no. 1 in 1999; 2000s—finishing world no. 6 in 2000, no. 3 in 2001, no. 2 in 2002, no. 4 in 2003, no. 8 in 2004 and no. 7 in 2005). He also was the oldest player (age 31) to finish in the top three since 32-year old Connors finished at world no. 2 in 1984.<ref name="atpbio" /> 2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. The last duel between Agassi and Sampras came in the final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, [[Rome Masters|Rome]] and [[Madrid Masters|Madrid]], helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end world no. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.<ref name="atpbio" /> In 2003, Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat [[Rainer Schüttler]] in straight sets in the final. In March, he won his sixth career and third consecutive [[Key Biscayne]] title, in the process surpassing his wife, [[Steffi Graf]], who was a five-time winner of the event. The final was his 18th straight win in that tournament, which broke the previous record of 17 set by Sampras from 1993–1995. (Agassi's winning streak continued to 20 after winning his first two matches at the 2004 edition of that tournament before bowing to [[Agustín Calleri]].) With the victory, Agassi became the youngest (19 years old) and oldest (32) winner of the Key Biscayne tournament. On 28 April 2003, he recaptured the world no. 1 ranking after a quarterfinal victory over [[Xavier Malisse]] at the [[Queen's Club Championships]] to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. He had held the world no. 1 ranking for two weeks, when [[Lleyton Hewitt]] took it back on 12 May 2003. Agassi then recaptured the world no. 1 ranking once again on 16 June 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until 7 September 2003. During his career, Agassi held the world no. 1 ranking for a total of 101 weeks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tenniscorner.net/index.php?corner=m&action=stats&stats=no1|title=Weeks at Number One|publisher=TennisCorner.net|accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from many events. He did manage to reach the US Open semifinals, where he lost to [[Juan Carlos Ferrero]] and surrendered his world no. 1 ranking to Ferrero. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer and finished the year ranked world no. 4. At age 33, he was the oldest player to rank in the top 5 since Connors, at age 35, was world no. 4 in 1987.<ref name="atpbio" /> ===2004–2006=== In 2004, Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semifinals of the Australian Open to [[Marat Safin]]; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak at the event, a record that still stands. He won the [[Cincinnati Masters|Masters series event in Cincinnati]] to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament—all except the tournaments in [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo]] and [[Hamburg Masters|Hamburg]]. At 34, he became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by [[Ken Rosewall]], who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked world no. 8, the oldest player to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was world no. 7 in 1988.<ref name="atpbio" /> Agassi also became only the sixth male player during the [[Tennis open era|open era]] to reach 800 career wins with his first-round victory over [[Alex Bogomolov]] in [[Countrywide Classic]] in Los Angeles. Agassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments, but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to [[Jarkko Nieminen]] in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the [[Canada Masters|Rogers Cup]], before falling to world no. 2 [[Rafael Nadal]]. Agassi's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US Open final. After beating [[Răzvan Sabău]] and [[Ivo Karlović]] in straight sets and [[Tomáš Berdych]] in four sets, Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches to advance to the final. The most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over [[James Blake (tennis)|James Blake]], where he rallied from two sets down to win 7–6 in the fifth set. His other five-set victims were [[Xavier Malisse]] in the fourth round and [[Robby Ginepri]] in the semifinals. In the final, Agassi faced Federer, who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his sixth Grand Slam title in two years. Federer defeated Agassi in four sets. Before the 2005 Tennis Masters Cup in Shanghai, Agassi rolled his ankle in a [[racquetball]] accident and tore several ligaments. He was unable to walk for weeks. He nevertheless committed to the tournament, in which he was seeded third, and played [[Nikolay Davydenko]] in his first round-robin match. Agassi's movement was noticeably hindered, particularly on his backhand return of serve, and he lost in straight sets. He then withdrew from the tournament. Agassi finished 2005 ranked world no. 7, his 16th time in the year-end top-10 rankings, which tied Connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at year's end. On 25 July 2005 Agassi left [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with [[Adidas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=2116135|title=Agassi signs Adidas deal after long-term deal with Nike|author=Darren Rovell|date=25 July 2005|publisher=[[ESPN]]|accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities, and Adidas was more than happy to do so. On 13 May 2013 Agassi rejoined Nike.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tennis.si.com/2013/05/14/andre-agassi-nike-commercials/|title=Andre Agassi re-signs with Nike: A look back at his memorable commercials|publisher=Sports Illustrated|date=14 May 2013|accessdate=15 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nicekicks.com/2013/05/13/andre-agassi-rejoins-nike/|title=Andre Asassi Rejoins Nike|author=Brittany Shelton|publisher=NiceKicks|date=13 May 2013|accessdate=15 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Daily/Issues/2013/05/14/Marketing-and-Sponsorship/Agassi.aspx|title=Back Home: Andre Agassi Returns To Nike After Eight Years With Adidas|publisher=Street & Smith|date=14 May 2013|accessdate=15 May 2013}}</ref> Agassi had a poor start to 2006. He was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay-court season, including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass-court season, playing a tune-up, and then [[2006 Wimbledon Championships – Men's Singles|Wimbledon]]. He was defeated in the third round by world no. 2 (and eventual runner-up) [[Rafael Nadal]]. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13653101|title=Upsetting day: Agassi, then Roddick ousted|date=1 June 2006|accessdate=27 October 2007|agency=Associated Press|publisher=NBC Sports| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20071105214848/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13653101| archivedate= 5 November 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season, with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the [[Countrywide Classic]] in Los Angeles to [[Fernando González]] of Chile. As a result, he was unseeded at the US Open. Agassi had a short, but dramatic, run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a tough four-set win against [[Andrei Pavel]], Agassi faced eighth-seeded [[Marcos Baghdatis]] in the second round, who had earlier advanced to the [[2006 Australian Open]] final and Wimbledon semifinals. Agassi won in five tough sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving [[Benjamin Becker]] of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech. ===Earnings=== Agassi earned more than US$30&nbsp;million in prize-money during his career, fifth only to Federer, Nadal, Djokovic and Sampras to date. He also earned more than US$25&nbsp;million a year through endorsements during his career, fourth in all sports at the time.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/53/1YUQ.html|title=Forbes:Andre Agassi|work=Forbes|accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> ===Post-retirement=== Since retiring after the [[2006 US Open (tennis)|2006 US Open]], Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On 5 September 2007, he was a surprise guest commentator for the [[Andy Roddick]]/[[Roger Federer]] [[2007 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] quarter-final. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon, teaming with his wife, Steffi Graf, to play with [[Tim Henman]] and [[Kim Clijsters]]. He played [[World Team Tennis]] for the [[Philadelphia Freedoms]] in the summer of 2009<ref>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/tennis/02/26/agassi.ap/index.html Andre Agassi Will Play WTT] SI.com, 1 March 2009</ref> and played at the [[Outback Champions Series]] event for the first time. He played the [[Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championship at Surprise|Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships]] at [[Surprise, Arizona]], where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion [[Todd Martin]].<ref>{{cite web|url =http://www.championsseriestennis.com/events/event-results/|title=Champions Series Tennis – Arizona 2009|year=2009|accessdate=12 April 2012}}</ref> On the way to the final, Agassi beat [[Mikael Pernfors]] in the quarter-finals and [[Wayne Ferreira]] in the semi-finals. He also announced that he will not be playing the tour on a full-time basis, and played the tournament as a favor to long-time friend [[Jim Courier]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbssports.com/tennis/story/12343241|title=Agassi reaches Outback Champions Series final|publisher=CBS Sports|accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> At the [[2009 French Open]], Agassi was on hand to present [[Roger Federer]], who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam, with the trophy.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/jun/07/roger-federer-wins-french-open Roger Federer beats Robin Soderling to win French Open tennis | Sport | guardian.co.uk]</ref> ==Playing style== Early in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. His groundstrokes, return of serve, baseline game, phenomenal hand-eye coordination and keen sense of anticipation were always among the best in the game. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for the winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, laser-accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but in particular down the line. His slightly spinnier forehand was nearly as strong, in particular his inside-out forehand to the ad court.{{according to whom|date=July 2013}}{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Agassi's strength was in dictating play from the back of the court. While he was growing up, his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way.<ref name="ReferenceA">Open: Andre Agassi HarpersCollins 2009</ref> When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors, and to make his opponent run more. This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach, Brad Gilbert, in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars, and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Agassi's serve was never the strength of his game, but it improved steadily over the course of his career to being above average. He often used his hard slice serve to the deuce service box to send his opponent off the court, followed by a shot to the opposite corner. Agassi's service speed when hitting a flat first serve would range between {{convert|110|and|125|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. His second serve usually was a heavy "kick" serve in the mid-80s range.{{according to whom|date=July 2013}}{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Agassi was raised on hardcourts, but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros, reaching two consecutive finals there early in his career. His first major win, however, was at the slick grass of Wimbledon in 1992, a tournament that he professed to hating at the time.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> His strongest surface over the course of his career, however, was indeed hardcourt, where he won six of his eight majors. ==Personal and family life== In the early 90's Agassi dated American entertainer [[Barbra Streisand]]. Writing about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, he said: We agree that we're good for each other, and so what if she's twenty-eight years older? We're simpatico, and the public outcry only adds spice to our connection. It makes our friendship feel forbidden, taboo &ndash; another piece of my overall rebellion. Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing Hot Lava." Agassi was married to [[Brooke Shields]] from 1997 to 1999. He married [[Steffi Graf]] on 22 October 2001; four days later, their son, Jaden Gil, was born. Their daughter, Jaz Elle, was born in October 2003.<ref>{{cite web|last=Knolle|first=Sharon|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=101751&page=1|title=Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf Wed|publisher=Abcnews.go.com|accessdate=6 June 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110522145516/http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=101751&page=1| archivedate= 22 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players.<ref>[http://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/news/article.cfm?c_id=4&objectid=10861440 "Tennis: Agassi taking different tact with fatherhood,"] The New Zealand Herald, 25 January 2013</ref> Long-time trainer [[Gil Reyes (tennis)|Gil Reyes]] has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a "father figure" to Agassi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/features/1999/year_in_review/flashbacks/father_best/|title=Father Knew Best|work=Sports Illustrated|accessdate =26 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://safinhantuchova.blogspot.com/2008/07/papa-gil.html|title=Peter Bodo Blog: Papa Gil|accessdate =26 January 2011}}</ref> In 2012, Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment, BILT By Agassi and Reyes.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/training-day/201209/bilt-andre-agassi-gil-reyes-fitness-gym-equipment-safety|title=Andre Agassi and Trainer Introduce Their Personalized Fitness Equipment to the Public|work=ThePostGame.com|accessdate =7 September 2012}}</ref> In December 2008, Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager, Perry Rogers, sued Graf for $50,000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him.<ref>[http://media.lasvegassun.com/media/pdfs/blogs/documents/2008/12/06/Complaint_and_Summons.pdf ''Alliance Sports Management v. Stephanie Graf'' ''[[Las Vegas Sun]]'']. Retrieved 23 October 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.lvrj.com/news/35674229.html "Ex-manager for Agassi sues Graf" ''[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]]'' 7 December 2008]. Retrieved 23 October 2009.</ref> Agassi's autobiography, ''Open'' (written with assistance from [[J. R. Moehringer]]<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/09/books/09book.html?_r=1 "Agassi Basks in His Own Spotlight" by Janet Malin ''New York Times'' 8 November 2009]. Retrieved 11 December 2009.</ref>), was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi admitted that he used and tested positive for [[methamphetamine]] in 1997.<ref name="sports.espn.go.com"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/more_sports/2009/10/27/2009-10-27_agassi.html|location=New York|work=Daily News|title=Andre Agassi admits to using crystal meth in forthcoming autobiography|first=Nathaniel|last=Vinton|date=27 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/sports/NATL-Andre-Agassi-Admits-to-Using-Crystal-Meth-66510482.html|title=Andre Agassi Admits to Using Crystal Meth|date=27 October 2009|accessdate =26 January 2011}}</ref> In response to this revelation, [[Roger Federer]] declared himself shocked and disappointed, while [[Marat Safin]] argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sport.repubblica.it/news/sport/tennis-federer-deluso-e-scioccato-da-agassi/3730572.html|title=TENNIS, FEDERER: DELUSO E SCIOCCATO DA AGASSI|language=it|trans_title = }}</ref><ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/nov/10/andre-agassi-marat-safin-drugs</ref> In an exclusive interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that "It was a period in my life where I needed help."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportmediaset.mediaset.it/altrisport/articoli/articolo27870.shtml|title=Agassi: "Ora chiedo comprensione". Droga, ex tennista si giustifica in tv|language=it|publisher=Sport-[[Mediaset]]|accessdate =22 November 2013}}</ref> He also revealed that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also revealed he thought [[Pete Sampras]] was "robotic".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/oct/29/andre-agassi-hate-tennis|title=Why did Andre Agassi hate tennis?|first=Stuart|last=Jeffries|work=The Guardian |location=London |date=29 October 2009|accessdate=25 January 2010}}</ref> The book reached No. 1 on the [[New York Times Best Seller list|''New York Times'' Best Seller list]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/books/bestseller/besthardnonfiction.html?ref=bestseller|work=The New York Times|title=Hardcover Nonfiction|date=29 November 2009|accessdate=30 March 2010|first=Jennifer|last=Schuessler}}</ref> and received favorable reviews.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/jacketcopy/2009/11/book-reviews-agassi-mayle-mourlevat-palin.html|work=The Los Angeles Times|title=Jacket Copy|date=20 November 2009}}</ref> It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 [[British Sports Book Awards]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/sport/simonbriggs/100005984/the-british-sports-book-awards-go-global/ |title=Andre Agassi's 'Open' wins at the British Sports Book Awards. Pity about the gloopy speech |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |author=Simon Briggs |date=12 March 2010 |accessdate=26 November 2012}}</ref> ==Politics== Agassi has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsmeat.com/sports_political_donations/Andre_Agassi.php|title=Andre Agassi's Federal Campaign Contribution Report|publisher=NewsMeat|accessdate =26 January 2011}}</ref> However, on 1 September 2010, when he appeared on daily WNYC public radio program "The Brian Lehrer Show," he stated that he is a registered Independent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beta.wnyc.org/shows/bl/2010/sep/01/net-effects/|title=Andre Agassi: Net Effects|publisher="The Brian Lehrer Show"|accessdate =26 January 2011}}</ref> ==Philanthropy== Agassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994, which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He is regularly cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackvoices.com/black_sports/columnists/roysjohnson/_a/sportsmanperson-of-the-year/20061002123009990001|title=Sportsman/Person of the Year|accessdate =26 January 2011}}</ref> Agassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics. In 2001, Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy<ref name=Prep>{{cite web|url=http://www.agassiprep.org|title=Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy|accessdate=26 January 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110211235357/http://agassiprep.org/| archivedate= 11 February 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. In 2009, the graduating class had 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate.<ref>{{cite web|last=Smith|first=Karen|url=http://www.cw.edu/page.php?subj=about&page=president-blog&id=20|title=College of Westchester – CW President's Blog|publisher=Cw.edu|date=23 September 2009|accessdate=6 June 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110719183024/http://www.cw.edu/page.php?subj=about&page=president-blog&id=20| archivedate= 19 July 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children, Child Haven. In 1997, Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001, and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.athlete.com/profile.php?id=351|title=Andre Agassi|publisher=Athlete.com|accessdate=6 June 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110707182451/http://www.athlete.com/profile.php?id=351| archivedate= 7 July 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> In 2007 Agassi, [[Muhammad Ali]], [[Lance Armstrong]], [[Warrick Dunn]], [[Jeff Gordon]], [[Mia Hamm]], [[Tony Hawk]], [[Andrea Jaeger]], [[Jackie Joyner-Kersee]], [[Mario Lemieux]], [[Alonzo Mourning]] and [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]] founded the charity Athletes for Hope, which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities.<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.athletesforhope.org/history.html|publisher=Athletes for Hope}}</ref> ==Recognition== In 2010, ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' named Agassi the 7th greatest male player of all time.<ref name="SI"/> On 9 July 2011, Agassi was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame at a ceremony in Newport, Rhode Island.<ref name="tennis"/> ==Career statistics== {{Main|Andre Agassi career statistics}} ===Records=== {|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- !Time span !Selected Grand Slam tournament records !Players matched |- |'''1990 YEC{{#tag:ref|Abbreviation for "[[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]]".|group=lower-alpha}} —<br> 1999 French Open||'''Career "Super Slam"{{#tag:ref|A "Career Super Slam" entails winning all 4 [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Majors]], the [[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]] and the [[Tennis at the Summer Olympics|Olympic]] gold medal in singles.|group=lower-alpha}}<ref name="SI"/>||'''Stands alone |- |1992 Wimbledon —<br> 1999 French Open||Career Golden Slam<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tsn.ca/tennis/story/?id=333700|title=Nadal Captures U.S. Open To Complete Career Grand Slam|publisher=The Sports Network (TSN)|date=14 September 2010|accessdate=12 June 2012|quote=Nadal...also owns an Olympic gold medal, which makes him one of only two men to corral the career Golden Slam, with the great Agassi being the other.}}</ref>||[[Rafael Nadal]] |- |1992 Wimbledon —<br> 1999 French Open||Career Grand Slam<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/07/sports/tennis-agassi-revival-reaches-a-peak-in-french-open.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|title=Agassi Revival Reaches a Peak In French Open|first=Robin|last=Finn|newspaper=The New York Times|date=7 June 1999|accessdate=9 July 2012}}</ref>||[[Rod Laver]]<br>[[Roger Federer]]<br>Rafael Nadal |- |1996 Olympics —<br> 1999 US Open||Simultaneous holder of Olympic singles gold medal and Majors on clay & hard court||Rafael Nadal |- |1996 Olympics —<br> 2000 Australian Open||Simultaneous holder of Olympic singles gold medal and 3 Majors||Rafael Nadal |- |} {|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- !Grand Slam tournaments !Time Span !Records at each Grand Slam tournament !Players matched |- |Australian Open||1995–2003||[[List of Australian Open Men's Singles champions#Multiple champions|4 titles overall]]||[[Roger Federer]]<br>[[Novak Djokovic]] |- |'''Australian Open||'''2000–2004||'''26 consecutive match wins||'''Stands alone |- |'''Australian Open||'''1995–2005||'''88.89% (48–6) match winning percentage||'''Stands alone |- |'''Australian Open||'''2003||'''71.6% (121–48) games winning percentage in 1 tournament||'''Stands alone |- |'''US Open||'''1986–2006||'''21 consecutive tournaments played<ref>{{cite web|title=US Open Singles Record Book|url=http://www.usopen.org/pdf/Record_Book_Singles_Records.pdf|accessdate=26 August 2012|publisher=US Open}}</ref>||'''Stands alone |} {|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" |- !Time span !Other selected records !Players matched |- |1988–2005||13 [[ATP World Tour Finals|Year-End Championship]]{{#tag:ref|Known as "Masters Grand Prix" (1970–1989), "ATP Tour World Championships" (1990–1999) and "Tennis Masters Cup" (2000–2008).|group=lower-alpha}} appearances||'''Stands alone |- |1986–2006||598 hard court match wins<ref>{{cite web|title=FedEx ATP Reliability Index – Winning percentage on Hard|url=http://www.atpworldtour.com/Reliability-Zone/Reliability-Hard-Career-List.aspx|accessdate=19 July 2012|publisher=ATP World Tour}}</ref>||'''Stands alone |- |1990–2003||6 [[Miami Masters]] titles<ref>{{cite web|title=Sony Open – Records and Stats|url=http://www.sonyopentennis.com/en/the-open/records-and-stats|accessdate=29 March 2014|publisher=Sony Open Tennis}}</ref>||'''Stands alone |- |1995–2003||Oldest player ranked no. 1 (33 years 4 months)<ref>{{cite web|title=Federer Rises Above|url=http://www.atpworldtour.com/News/DEUCE-Tennis/Federer-No1/Federer-No1-Tribute.aspx|first=James|last=Buddell|location=London|date=16 July 2012|accessdate=16 July 2012|publisher=ATP World Tour|quote=Andre Agassi, who remains the oldest player to have been no. 1 in the South African Airways ATP Rankings, at 33 years and 131 days in 2003, proved to be a great inspiration.}}</ref>||'''Stands alone |- |1988–2005||Ended 16 years ranked inside the top 10||[[Jimmy Connors]] |} ==Professional awards== * [[Tennis world champions named by the International Tennis Federation|ITF World Champion]]: 1999. * [[ATP Awards|ATP Player of the Year]]: 1999. * [[ATP Awards|ATP Most Improved Player]]: 1988 ==Video== * ''Wimbledon 2000 Semi-Final – Agassi vs. Rafter (2003)'' Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 16 August 2005, Run Time: 213&nbsp;minutes, {{OCLC|61774054}}. * ''[http://www.charlierose.com/view/interview/3132 Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001)]'' Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: 15 August 2006, Run Time: 57&nbsp;minutes. * ''Wimbledon: The Record Breakers (2005)'' Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 16 August 2005, Run Time: 52&nbsp;minutes, {{OCLC|61658553}}. ==Video games== {{main|Andre Agassi Tennis}} * ''[[Andre Agassi Tennis]]'' for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Sega Game Gear]], [[Master System]], and Mobile phone<ref name="mobygames">[http://www.mobygames.com/game/andre-agassi-tennis ''Andre Agassi Tennis''] at [[MobyGames]]</ref> * ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation]]'' for [[PlayStation 2|PS2]] and [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]] * ''Smash Court Pro Tournament'' for PS2 * ''[[Top Spin 4]]'' (On cover of game) for [[Xbox 360]], [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Wii]] ==See also== {{Portal|Biography|Tennis}} * [[List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions]] * [[Sampras–Agassi rivalry]] * [[Tennis male players statistics]] *[[ATP World Tour records]] *[[Tennis records of All Time - Men's Singles]] *[[Tennis records of the Open Era – Men's Singles]] *[[Iranian American]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * {{Cite book|author=Agassi, Mike; Cobello, Dominic; Welsh, Kate|title=The Agassi Story|publisher=ECW Press|location=Toronto|year=2004|isbn=978-1-55022-656-0|oclc= }} * {{Cite book|author=Andre Agassi|title=Open: An Autobiography (Vintage)|publisher=Vintage|location=London|year=2010|isbn=0-307-38840-9|oclc=}} ==External links== {{commons category}} {{wikiquote}} * {{ATP|A092}} * {{ITF male profile|10000009}} * {{DavisCup player|10000009}} * {{Worldcat id|lccn-n92-119422}} * [http://www.thetennischannel.com/game/players/PlayerProfile.aspx?id=611 Player profile at TheTennisChannel.com] * [http://www.agassiopen.com/ AgassiOpen.com] * [http://www.agassifoundation.org/ The Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation] * [http://www.sptimes.com/2004/08/01/Sports/For_Agassi__it_s_subs.shtml/ For Agassi, it's substance over style], 2004 * [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/andreagassifarewelltotennis.htm Farewell to Tennis Speech at the U.S. Open] * [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/andreagassistefgrafinduction.htm Agassi's Tennis Hall of Fame Induction for Steffi Graf] * {{IMDb name|1152468}} {{Andre Agassi start boxes}} {{navboxes | title = Andre Agassi in the [[grand slam (tennis)|Grand Slam Tournaments]] | list1 = {{Australian Open men's singles champions}} {{French Open men's singles champions}} {{Wimbledon men's singles champions}} {{US Open men's singles champions}} {{Tennis Career Grand Slam Champions}} {{Men's tennis players who won two or more Grand Slam singles titles in one calendar year}} }} {{navboxes | title = Andre Agassi's [[Andre Agassi career statistics|achievements]] | list1 = {{Tennis World Number Ones (men)}} {{Year-End Championships winners}} {{ATP Masters Series tournament winners}} {{ATP Masters Series tournament doubles winners}} {{Footer Olympic Champions Tennis Men}} }} {{Persondata | NAME = Agassi, Andre | ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Agassi, Andre Kirk | SHORT DESCRIPTION = American tennis player | DATE OF BIRTH = 29 April 1970 | PLACE OF BIRTH = Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | DATE OF DEATH = | PLACE OF DEATH = }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Agassi, Andre}} [[Category:1970 births]] [[Category:American male tennis players]] [[Category:American people of Armenian descent]] [[Category:American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent]] [[Category:American philanthropists]] [[Category:Australian Open champions]] [[Category:Doping cases in tennis]] [[Category:French Open champions]] [[Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles]] [[Category:International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Nevada Democrats]] [[Category:Assyrian athletes]] [[Category:Olympic gold medalists for the United States]] [[Category:Olympic medalists in tennis]] [[Category:Olympic tennis players of the United States]] [[Category:Armenian athletes]] [[Category:Sportspeople from the Las Vegas Valley]] [[Category:Tennis people from Nevada]] [[Category:Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:US Open (tennis) champions]] [[Category:Wimbledon champions]] [[Category:World No. 1 tennis players]] [[Category:Iranian Assyrian people]] [[Category:American autobiographers]] [[Category:Writers from Nevada]] [[Category:Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics]] {{Link GA|ru}} l9x9gx2rfqhf6z7tus9isz843lejavv wikitext text/x-wiki 0 596 597922680 160875858 2014-03-03T06:44:16Z Paine Ellsworth 9092818 add [[WP:RCAT|Rcat]] #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{Redr|from alternative name|printworthy}} jnept57qayj24l0w8kjlfe74z3pqdxo wikitext text/x-wiki 0 597 602091363 601106688 2014-03-31T10:26:16Z Kwamikagami 93143 /* top */ {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}} {{Infobox language family |name=Austroasiatic |altname=Mon–Khmer |region=[[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]] |familycolor=Austroasiatic |family=One of the world's major [[language family|language families]] |protoname=[[Proto-Mon–Khmer language|Proto-Mon–Khmer]] |child1=[[Munda languages|Munda]] |child2=[[Khasic languages|Khasi]]–[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] |child3=[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] |child4=[[Pakanic languages|Pakanic]] |child6=[[Vietic languages|Vieto]]-[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]? |child8=[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] |child9=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] |child10=[[Pearic languages|Pearic]] |child11=[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] |child12=[[Aslian languages|Aslian]] |child13=[[Monic languages|Monic]] |child14=[[Shompen language|Shompen]]? |iso5=aav |glotto=aust1305 |glottoname=Austroasiatic / Mon–Khmer |map=Austroasiatic-en.svg |mapcaption=Austroasiatic languages }} The '''Austroasiatic languages''',<ref>Sometimes also as '''Austro-Asiatic''' or '''Austroasian'''.</ref> in recent classifications synonymous with '''Mon–Khmer''',<ref>Bradley (2012) notes, ''MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic.''</ref> are a large [[language family]] of continental Southeast Asia, also scattered throughout India, [[Bangladesh]], and the southern border of China. The name ''Austroasiatic'' comes from the [[Latin]] words for "south" and "Asia", hence "South Asia". Among these languages, only [[Khmer language|Khmer]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], and [[Mon language|Mon]] have a long-established [[recorded history]], and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status (in [[Vietnam]] and [[Cambodia]], respectively). The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups. ''[[Ethnologue]]'' identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps [[Shompen language|Shompen]], which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as [[Mon–Khmer languages|Mon–Khmer]] and [[Munda languages|Munda]]. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Nuclear Mon-Khmer and [[Khasi–Khmuic languages|Khasi-Khmuic]])<ref>Diffloth 2005</ref> while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family.<ref>Sidwell 2009</ref> Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the [[autochthonous language]]s of Southeast Asia, with the neighboring [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]], [[Tai languages|Tai]], [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]], [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], and [[Tibeto-Burman]] languages being the result of later migrations (Sidwell & Blench, 2011). Genetic studies of representatives from all branches of Austroasiatic indicate the ancestors of Austroasiatic speakers originated in present-day India and migrated into Southeast Asia from the [[Brahmaputra River]] Valley.<ref>2007. Reddy, Battini M., et al. [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/47 "Y-chromosome evidence suggests a common paternal heritage of Austro-Asiatic populations"]. BMC Journal of Evolutionary Biology 7:47</ref> == Typology == {{Expand section|date=November 2010}} The Austroasiatic languages are well known for having a [[sesquisyllable|"sesquisyllabic"]] pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of a reduced [[minor syllable]] plus a full syllable. Many of them also have [[infix]]es. The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of [[Register (phonology)|register]] contrast, either between [[modal voice|modal]] (normal) voice and [[breathy voice|breathy]] (lax) voice or between modal voice and [[creaky voice]].<ref>DIPFLOTH, Gerard. [http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/15:139-154.pdf "Proto-Austroasiatic creaky voice."] (1989).</ref> Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, [[tonogenesis]]. ==Proto-language== {{Main|Proto-Mon–Khmer language}} Much work has been done on the reconstruction of [[Proto-Mon–Khmer]] in [[Harry L. Shorto]]'s ''Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary''. Little work has been done on the [[Munda languages]], which are not well documented; with their demotion from a primary branch,{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows: {| class="IPA wikitable" |- |*p||*t||*c||*k||*ʔ |- |*b||*d||*ɟ||*ɡ|| |- |*ɓ||*ɗ||*ʄ|| || |- |*m||*n||*ɲ||*ŋ|| |- |*w||*l, *r||*j|| || |- | ||*s|| || ||*h |} This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for {{IPA|*ʄ}}. {{IPA|*ʄ}} is better preserved in the [[Katuic languages]], which Sidwell has specialized in. Sidwell (2011) suggests that the likely homeland of Austroasiatic is the middle [[Mekong]], in the area of the Bahnaric and Katuic languages (approximately where modern Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia come together), and that the family is not as old as frequently assumed, dating to perhaps 2000 BCE.<ref name="SidwellBlench2011"/> ==Classification== Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, [[North-East India|Northeast India]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]], and the Munda languages of [[East India|East]] and Central India and parts of Bangladesh. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published. Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships ''between'' these families within Austroasiatic is debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accept traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] in Sumatra (Diffloth), the [[Chamic languages]] of Vietnam, and the [[Land Dayak languages]] of Borneo (Adelaar 1995).<ref>Roger Blench, ''2009. Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic?'' Presentation at ICAAL-4, Bangkok, 29–30 October–. Summarized in Sidwell and Blench (2011).</ref> ===Sidwell (2009, 2011)=== Sidwell (2009a), in a [[lexicostatistical]] comparison of 36 languages which are well-known enough to exclude loan words, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic.<ref name="SidwellBlench2011">Sidwell, Paul, and Roger Blench. 2011. "The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis." Enfield, N.J. (ed.) ''Dynamics of Human Diversity'', 317-345. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf</ref> If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest [[Shompen language|Shompen]] as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central [[Mekong]] River valley relatively quickly. {{clade |label1=Austroasiatic&nbsp;<br>=&nbsp;Mon–Khmer&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=[[Munda languages|Munda]] |label2=&nbsp;Khasi–Palaungic&nbsp; |2={{clade |1=[[Khasic languages|Khasian]] |2=[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] }} |3=[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] |4=[[Pakanic languages|Pakanic]] |6=[[Vietic languages|Vietic]] |7=[[Katuic languages|Katuic]] |8=[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] |9=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] |10=[[Pearic languages|Pearic]] |11=[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] |12=[[Aslian languages|Aslian]] |13=[[Monic languages|Monic]] |14=?[[Shompen language|Shompen]] }} }} ===Gérard Diffloth (2005)=== [[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]] compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have: {{clade |label1=Austro-&nbsp;<br>Asiatic&nbsp; |1={{clade |label1=&nbsp;[[Munda languages|Munda]]&nbsp; |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=Remo |2=Savara }} |2={{clade |1=Kharian–Juang |2={{clade |1=[[Korku language|Korku]] |2=Kherwarian }} }} }} |label2=&nbsp;[[Khasi–Khmuic languages|Khasi–&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;Khmuic]]&nbsp; |2={{clade |2=[[Khasic languages|Khasian]] |1={{clade |1=[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] |2={{clade |1=[[Pakanic languages|Pakanic]] |2=[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] }} }} }} |label3=&nbsp;[[Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages|(Nuclear)&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;{{nowrap|Mon–Khmer}}]]&nbsp; |3={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[Vietic languages|Vietic]] |label2=?<ref name=VK/> |2=[[Katuic languages|Katuic]] }} |2={{clade |1=[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] |2={{clade |1=[[Khmer language|Khmer]] |2=[[Pearic languages|Pearic]] }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] |2={{clade |1=[[Aslian languages|Aslian]] |2=[[Monic languages|Monic]] }} }} }} }} }} Or in more detail, * '''[[Munda languages]]''' (India) :* '''Koraput''': 7 languages :*Core Munda languages ::* '''Kharian–Juang''': 2 languages ::*North Munda languages ::: ''[[Korku language|Korku]]'' ::: '''Kherwarian''': 12 languages * [[Khasi–Khmuic languages]] (Northern Mon–Khmer) :* '''[[Khasic languages|Khasian]]''': 3 languages of eastern India and Bangladesh :*Palaungo-Khmuic languages ::* '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''': 13 languages of Laos and Thailand ::*Palaungo-Pakanic languages ::: '''Pakanic''' or '''[[Pakanic languages|Palyu]]''': 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam ::: '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''': 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand * [[Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages]] :* Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer) ::* Vieto-Katuic languages ?<ref name=VK>Sidwell (2005) casts doubt on Diffloth's Vieto-Katuic hypothesis, saying that the evidence is ambiguous, and that it is not clear where Katuic belongs in the family.</ref> ::: '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''': 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including the [[Vietnamese language]], which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language. These are the only Austroasiatic languages to have highly developed tone systems. ::: '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''': 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. ::* Khmero-Bahnaric languages :::* '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''': 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. :::*Khmeric languages :::: The '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. :::: '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''': 6 languages of Cambodia. :* Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer) ::* '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''': 6 languages of the [[Nicobar Islands]], a territory of India. ::* Asli-Monic languages ::: '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''': 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. ::: '''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''': 2 languages, the [[Mon language]] of Burma and the [[Nyah Kur language|Nyahkur language]] of Thailand. This family tree is consistent with recent studies of migration of Y-Chromosomal [[Haplogroup O-M95 (Y-DNA)|haplogroup O2a1-M95]]. However, the dates obtained from DNA studies are several times older than that given by linguists.<ref name="Kumar">Kumar, Vikrant et al., Y-chromosome evidence suggests a common paternal heritage of Austroasiatic populations, BMC Evol Biol. 2007, 7: 47.</ref> The route map of the people with haplogroup O2a1-M95, speaking this language can be seen in this link.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/7/47/figure/F1 |title=Figure |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-47 |publisher=www.biomedcentral.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> ===Ilia Peiros (2004)=== Peiros is a [[lexicostatistics|lexicostatistic]] classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that a language may appear to be more distantly related than it actually is due to [[language contact]]. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009a) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below. [[File:AustroAsiatic tree Peiros2004.png|thumb|500px]] *'''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''' *Munda–Khmer **'''[[Munda languages|Munda]]''' **[[Mon–Khmer languages|Mon–Khmer]] ***'''[[Khasi language|Khasi]]''' ***Nuclear Mon–Khmer ****[[Pakanic languages|Mangic]] ([[Mang language|Mang]] + [[Bolyu language|Palyu]]) (perhaps in Northern MK) ****'''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''' (perhaps in Northern MK) ****Northern Mon–Khmer *****'''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''' *****'''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''' ****Central Mon–Khmer *****'''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects *****'''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''' *****Asli-Bahnaric ******'''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''' ******Mon–Bahnaric *******'''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''' *******Katu–Bahnaric ********'''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''' ********'''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' {{Clear}} ===Diffloth (1974)=== [[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]]'s widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in ''Ethnologue.'' *'''[[Munda languages|Munda]]''' **North Munda *** Korku ***'''Kherwarian''' **South Munda ***'''Kharia–Juang''' ***'''Koraput Munda''' *[[Mon–Khmer languages|Mon–Khmer]] **Eastern Mon–Khmer ***'''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' (Cambodian) ***'''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''' ***'''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' ***'''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''' ***'''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''' (includes Vietnamese) **Northern Mon–Khmer ***'''[[Khasi language|Khasi]]''' ([[Meghalaya]], India) ***'''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''' ***'''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''' **Southern Mon–Khmer ***'''[[Mon language|Mon]]''' ***'''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''' ([[Peninsular Malaysia|Malaya]]) ***'''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''' ([[Nicobar Islands]]) ==Writing systems== Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the ancient Khmer alphabet, [[Thai alphabet]] and [[Lao alphabet]]. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. *[[Chữ Nôm]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chunom.htm |title=Vietnamese Chu Nom script |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Khmer alphabet]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm |title=Khmer/Cambodian alphabet, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Ol Chiki alphabet]] ([[Santali language|Santali]] alphabet)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/santali.htm |title=Santali alphabet, pronunciation and language |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Sorang Sompeng alphabet]] ([[Sora language|Sora]] alphabet)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sorangsompeng.htm |title=Sorang Sompeng script |publisher=Omniglot.com |date=18 June 1936 |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Varang Kshiti]] ([[Ho language|Ho]] alphabet)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/varangkshiti.htm |title=Varang Kshiti alphabet and Ho language |publisher=Omniglot.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2012}}</ref> *[[Khom script]] (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos) ==See also== *[[Austric languages]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== {{More footnotes|date=December 2008}} * Adams, K. L. (1989). ''Systems of numeral classification in the Mon–Khmer, Nicobarese and Aslian subfamilies of Austroasiatic''. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-373-5 * Bradley, David (2012). "Languages and Language Families in China", in Rint Sybesma (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics''. * [[Byomkes Chakrabarti|Chakrabarti, Byomkes]]. (1994). ''A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali''. *Diffloth, Gérard (2005). "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austro-Asiatic". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. ''The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics.'' 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon. ISBN 0-415-32242-1 * Filbeck, D. (1978). ''T'in: a historical study''. Pacific linguistics, no. 49. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-172-4 * Hemeling, K. (1907). ''Die Nanking Kuanhua''. (German language) * Peck, B. M., Comp. (1988). ''An Enumerative Bibliography of South Asian Language Dictionaries''. * Peiros, Ilia. 1998. ''Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia.'' Pacific Linguistics Series C, No. 142. Canberra: Australian National University. * Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). ''A Mon–Khmer comparative dictionary''. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 0-85883-570-3 * Shorto, H. L. ''Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics''. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. * Sidwell, Paul (2005). "Proto-Katuic Phonology and the Sub-grouping of Mon–Khmer Languages". In Sidwell, ed., ''SEALSXV: papers from the 15th meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society.'' *Sidwell, Paul (2009a). [http://www.jolr.ru/files/%2851%29jlr2010-4%28117-134%29.pdf The Austroasiatic Central Riverine Hypothesis]. Keynote address, SEALS, XIX. * Sidwell, Paul (2009b). ''Classifying the Austroasiatic languages: history and state of the art''. LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, 76. Munich: Lincom Europa. * Zide, Norman H., and Milton E. Barker. (1966) ''Studies in Comparative Austroasiatic Linguistics'', The Hague: Mouton (Indo-Iranian monographs, v. 5.). ==External links== {{Commons category|Austroasiatic languages}} *[[wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages|Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages]] (from Wiktionary's [[wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists Swadesh-list appendix]]) *[http://multitree.org/codes/ausa Austro-Asiatic], the LINGUIST List MultiTree Project *[http://people.anu.edu.au/~u9907217/languages/languages.html Mon–Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell] *[http://sealang.net/monkhmer/ Mon–Khmer Languages Project] at SEAlang {{Austroasiatic languages}} {{Language families}}