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<!-- doc/src/sgml/pgcrypto.sgml -->
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<title>pgcrypto</title>
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<indexterm zone="pgcrypto">
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<primary>pgcrypto</primary>
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<indexterm zone="pgcrypto">
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<primary>encryption</primary>
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<secondary>for specific columns</secondary>
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The <filename>pgcrypto</> module provides cryptographic functions for
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<productname>PostgreSQL</>.
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<title>General Hashing Functions</title>
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<title><function>digest()</function></title>
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digest(data text, type text) returns bytea
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digest(data bytea, type text) returns bytea
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Computes a binary hash of the given <parameter>data</>.
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<parameter>type</> is the algorithm to use.
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Standard algorithms are <literal>md5</literal>, <literal>sha1</literal>,
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<literal>sha224</literal>, <literal>sha256</literal>,
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<literal>sha384</literal> and <literal>sha512</literal>.
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If <filename>pgcrypto</> was built with
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OpenSSL, more algorithms are available, as detailed in
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<xref linkend="pgcrypto-with-without-openssl">.
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If you want the digest as a hexadecimal string, use
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<function>encode()</> on the result. For example:
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CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION sha1(bytea) returns text AS $$
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SELECT encode(digest($1, 'sha1'), 'hex')
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$$ LANGUAGE SQL STRICT IMMUTABLE;
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<title><function>hmac()</function></title>
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hmac(data text, key text, type text) returns bytea
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hmac(data bytea, key text, type text) returns bytea
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Calculates hashed MAC for <parameter>data</> with key <parameter>key</>.
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<parameter>type</> is the same as in <function>digest()</>.
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This is similar to <function>digest()</> but the hash can only be
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recalculated knowing the key. This prevents the scenario of someone
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altering data and also changing the hash to match.
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If the key is larger than the hash block size it will first be hashed and
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the result will be used as key.
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<title>Password Hashing Functions</title>
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The functions <function>crypt()</> and <function>gen_salt()</>
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are specifically designed for hashing passwords.
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<function>crypt()</> does the hashing and <function>gen_salt()</>
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prepares algorithm parameters for it.
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The algorithms in <function>crypt()</> differ from usual hashing algorithms
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like MD5 or SHA1 in the following respects:
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They are slow. As the amount of data is so small, this is the only
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way to make brute-forcing passwords hard.
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They use a random value, called the <firstterm>salt</>, so that users
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having the same password will have different encrypted passwords.
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This is also an additional defense against reversing the algorithm.
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They include the algorithm type in the result, so passwords hashed with
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different algorithms can co-exist.
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Some of them are adaptive — that means when computers get
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faster, you can tune the algorithm to be slower, without
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introducing incompatibility with existing passwords.
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<xref linkend="pgcrypto-crypt-algorithms"> lists the algorithms
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supported by the <function>crypt()</function> function.
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<table id="pgcrypto-crypt-algorithms">
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<title>Supported Algorithms for <function>crypt()</></title>
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<entry>Algorithm</entry>
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<entry>Max Password Length</entry>
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<entry>Adaptive?</entry>
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<entry>Salt Bits</entry>
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<entry>Description</entry>
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<entry><literal>bf</></entry>
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<entry>Blowfish-based, variant 2a</entry>
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<entry><literal>md5</></entry>
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<entry>unlimited</entry>
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<entry>MD5-based crypt</entry>
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<entry><literal>xdes</></entry>
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<entry>Extended DES</entry>
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<entry><literal>des</></entry>
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<entry>Original UNIX crypt</entry>
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<title><function>crypt()</></title>
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crypt(password text, salt text) returns text
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Calculates a crypt(3)-style hash of <parameter>password</>.
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When storing a new password, you need to use
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<function>gen_salt()</> to generate a new <parameter>salt</> value.
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To check a password, pass the stored hash value as <parameter>salt</>,
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and test whether the result matches the stored value.
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Example of setting a new password:
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UPDATE ... SET pswhash = crypt('new password', gen_salt('md5'));
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Example of authentication:
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SELECT pswhash = crypt('entered password', pswhash) FROM ... ;
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This returns <literal>true</> if the entered password is correct.
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<title><function>gen_salt()</></title>
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gen_salt(type text [, iter_count integer ]) returns text
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Generates a new random salt string for use in <function>crypt()</>.
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The salt string also tells <function>crypt()</> which algorithm to use.
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The <parameter>type</> parameter specifies the hashing algorithm.
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The accepted types are: <literal>des</literal>, <literal>xdes</literal>,
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<literal>md5</literal> and <literal>bf</literal>.
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The <parameter>iter_count</> parameter lets the user specify the iteration
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count, for algorithms that have one.
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The higher the count, the more time it takes to hash
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the password and therefore the more time to break it. Although with
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too high a count the time to calculate a hash may be several years
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— which is somewhat impractical. If the <parameter>iter_count</>
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parameter is omitted, the default iteration count is used.
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Allowed values for <parameter>iter_count</> depend on the algorithm and
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are shown in <xref linkend="pgcrypto-icfc-table">.
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<table id="pgcrypto-icfc-table">
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<title>Iteration Counts for <function>crypt()</></title>
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<entry>Algorithm</entry>
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<entry>Default</entry>
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<entry><literal>xdes</></entry>
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<entry>16777215</entry>
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<entry><literal>bf</></entry>
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For <literal>xdes</literal> there is an additional limitation that the
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iteration count must be an odd number.
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To pick an appropriate iteration count, consider that
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the original DES crypt was designed to have the speed of 4 hashes per
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second on the hardware of that time.
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Slower than 4 hashes per second would probably dampen usability.
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Faster than 100 hashes per second is probably too fast.
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<xref linkend="pgcrypto-hash-speed-table"> gives an overview of the relative slowness
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of different hashing algorithms.
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The table shows how much time it would take to try all
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combinations of characters in an 8-character password, assuming
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that the password contains either only lower case letters, or
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upper- and lower-case letters and numbers.
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In the <literal>crypt-bf</literal> entries, the number after a slash is
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the <parameter>iter_count</parameter> parameter of
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<function>gen_salt</function>.
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<table id="pgcrypto-hash-speed-table">
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<title>Hash Algorithm Speeds</title>
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<entry>Algorithm</entry>
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<entry>Hashes/sec</entry>
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<entry>For <literal>[a-z]</></entry>
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<entry>For <literal>[A-Za-z0-9]</></entry>
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<entry><literal>crypt-bf/8</></entry>
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<entry>246 years</entry>
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<entry>251322 years</entry>
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<entry><literal>crypt-bf/7</></entry>
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<entry>121 years</entry>
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<entry>123457 years</entry>
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<entry><literal>crypt-bf/6</></entry>
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<entry>62 years</entry>
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<entry>62831 years</entry>
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<entry><literal>crypt-bf/5</></entry>
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<entry>33 years</entry>
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<entry>33351 years</entry>
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<entry><literal>crypt-md5</></entry>
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<entry>2.6 years</entry>
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<entry>2625 years</entry>
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<entry><literal>crypt-des</></entry>
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<entry>362837</entry>
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<entry>7 days</entry>
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<entry>19 years</entry>
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<entry><literal>sha1</></entry>
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<entry>590223</entry>
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<entry>4 days</entry>
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<entry>12 years</entry>
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<entry><literal>md5</></entry>
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<entry>2345086</entry>
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<entry>3 years</entry>
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The machine used is a 1.5GHz Pentium 4.
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<literal>crypt-des</> and <literal>crypt-md5</> algorithm numbers are
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taken from John the Ripper v1.6.38 <literal>-test</> output.
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<literal>md5</> numbers are from mdcrack 1.2.
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<literal>sha1</> numbers are from lcrack-20031130-beta.
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<literal>crypt-bf</literal> numbers are taken using a simple program that
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loops over 1000 8-character passwords. That way I can show the speed
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with different numbers of iterations. For reference: <literal>john
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-test</literal> shows 213 loops/sec for <literal>crypt-bf/5</>.
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difference in results is in accordance with the fact that the
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<literal>crypt-bf</literal> implementation in <filename>pgcrypto</>
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is the same one used in John the Ripper.)
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Note that <quote>try all combinations</quote> is not a realistic exercise.
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Usually password cracking is done with the help of dictionaries, which
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contain both regular words and various mutations of them. So, even
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somewhat word-like passwords could be cracked much faster than the above
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numbers suggest, while a 6-character non-word-like password may escape
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<title>PGP Encryption Functions</title>
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The functions here implement the encryption part of the OpenPGP (RFC 4880)
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standard. Supported are both symmetric-key and public-key encryption.
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An encrypted PGP message consists of 2 parts, or <firstterm>packets</>:
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Packet containing a session key — either symmetric-key or public-key
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Packet containing data encrypted with the session key.
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When encrypting with a symmetric key (i.e., a password):
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The given password is hashed using a String2Key (S2K) algorithm. This is
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rather similar to <function>crypt()</> algorithms — purposefully
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slow and with random salt — but it produces a full-length binary
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If a separate session key is requested, a new random key will be
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generated. Otherwise the S2K key will be used directly as the session
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If the S2K key is to be used directly, then only S2K settings will be put
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into the session key packet. Otherwise the session key will be encrypted
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with the S2K key and put into the session key packet.
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When encrypting with a public key:
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A new random session key is generated.
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It is encrypted using the public key and put into the session key packet.
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In either case the data to be encrypted is processed as follows:
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Optional data-manipulation: compression, conversion to UTF-8,
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and/or conversion of line-endings.
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The data is prefixed with a block of random bytes. This is equivalent
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to using a random IV.
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An SHA1 hash of the random prefix and data is appended.
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All this is encrypted with the session key and placed in the data packet.
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<title><function>pgp_sym_encrypt()</function></title>
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pgp_sym_encrypt(data text, psw text [, options text ]) returns bytea
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pgp_sym_encrypt_bytea(data bytea, psw text [, options text ]) returns bytea
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Encrypt <parameter>data</> with a symmetric PGP key <parameter>psw</>.
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The <parameter>options</> parameter can contain option settings,
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<title><function>pgp_sym_decrypt()</function></title>
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pgp_sym_decrypt(msg bytea, psw text [, options text ]) returns text
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pgp_sym_decrypt_bytea(msg bytea, psw text [, options text ]) returns bytea
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Decrypt a symmetric-key-encrypted PGP message.
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Decrypting <type>bytea</> data with <function>pgp_sym_decrypt</> is disallowed.
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This is to avoid outputting invalid character data. Decrypting
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originally textual data with <function>pgp_sym_decrypt_bytea</> is fine.
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The <parameter>options</> parameter can contain option settings,
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<title><function>pgp_pub_encrypt()</function></title>
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pgp_pub_encrypt(data text, key bytea [, options text ]) returns bytea
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pgp_pub_encrypt_bytea(data bytea, key bytea [, options text ]) returns bytea
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Encrypt <parameter>data</> with a public PGP key <parameter>key</>.
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Giving this function a secret key will produce a error.
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The <parameter>options</> parameter can contain option settings,
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<title><function>pgp_pub_decrypt()</function></title>
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pgp_pub_decrypt(msg bytea, key bytea [, psw text [, options text ]]) returns text
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pgp_pub_decrypt_bytea(msg bytea, key bytea [, psw text [, options text ]]) returns bytea
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Decrypt a public-key-encrypted message. <parameter>key</> must be the
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secret key corresponding to the public key that was used to encrypt.
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If the secret key is password-protected, you must give the password in
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<parameter>psw</>. If there is no password, but you want to specify
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options, you need to give an empty password.
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Decrypting <type>bytea</> data with <function>pgp_pub_decrypt</> is disallowed.
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This is to avoid outputting invalid character data. Decrypting
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originally textual data with <function>pgp_pub_decrypt_bytea</> is fine.
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The <parameter>options</> parameter can contain option settings,
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<title><function>pgp_key_id()</function></title>
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pgp_key_id(bytea) returns text
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<function>pgp_key_id</> extracts the key ID of a PGP public or secret key.
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Or it gives the key ID that was used for encrypting the data, if given
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an encrypted message.
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It can return 2 special key IDs:
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The message is encrypted with a symmetric key.
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The message is public-key encrypted, but the key ID has been removed.
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That means you will need to try all your secret keys on it to see
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which one decrypts it. <filename>pgcrypto</> itself does not produce
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Note that different keys may have the same ID. This is rare but a normal
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event. The client application should then try to decrypt with each one,
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to see which fits — like handling <literal>ANYKEY</>.
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<title><function>armor()</function>, <function>dearmor()</function></title>
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armor(data bytea) returns text
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dearmor(data text) returns bytea
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These functions wrap/unwrap binary data into PGP ASCII-armor format,
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which is basically Base64 with CRC and additional formatting.
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<title>Options for PGP Functions</title>
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Options are named to be similar to GnuPG. An option's value should be
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given after an equal sign; separate options from each other with commas.
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pgp_sym_encrypt(data, psw, 'compress-algo=1, cipher-algo=aes256')
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All of the options except <literal>convert-crlf</literal> apply only to
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encrypt functions. Decrypt functions get the parameters from the PGP
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The most interesting options are probably
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<literal>compress-algo</literal> and <literal>unicode-mode</literal>.
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The rest should have reasonable defaults.
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<title>cipher-algo</title>
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Which cipher algorithm to use.
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Values: bf, aes128, aes192, aes256 (OpenSSL-only: <literal>3des</literal>, <literal>cast5</literal>)
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt, pgp_pub_encrypt
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<title>compress-algo</title>
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Which compression algorithm to use. Only available if
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<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> was built with zlib.
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2 - ZLIB compression (= ZIP plus meta-data and block CRCs)
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt, pgp_pub_encrypt
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<title>compress-level</title>
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How much to compress. Higher levels compress smaller but are slower.
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0 disables compression.
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt, pgp_pub_encrypt
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<title>convert-crlf</title>
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Whether to convert <literal>\n</literal> into <literal>\r\n</literal> when
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encrypting and <literal>\r\n</literal> to <literal>\n</literal> when
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decrypting. RFC 4880 specifies that text data should be stored using
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<literal>\r\n</literal> line-feeds. Use this to get fully RFC-compliant
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt, pgp_pub_encrypt, pgp_sym_decrypt, pgp_pub_decrypt
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<title>disable-mdc</title>
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Do not protect data with SHA-1. The only good reason to use this
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option is to achieve compatibility with ancient PGP products, predating
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the addition of SHA-1 protected packets to RFC 4880.
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Recent gnupg.org and pgp.com software supports it fine.
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt, pgp_pub_encrypt
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<title>enable-session-key</title>
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Use separate session key. Public-key encryption always uses a separate
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session key; this is for symmetric-key encryption, which by default
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uses the S2K key directly.
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt
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<title>s2k-mode</title>
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Which S2K algorithm to use.
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0 - Without salt. Dangerous!
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1 - With salt but with fixed iteration count.
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3 - Variable iteration count.
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt
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<title>s2k-digest-algo</title>
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Which digest algorithm to use in S2K calculation.
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt
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<title>s2k-cipher-algo</title>
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Which cipher to use for encrypting separate session key.
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Values: bf, aes, aes128, aes192, aes256
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Default: use cipher-algo
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Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt
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<title>unicode-mode</title>
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Whether to convert textual data from database internal encoding to
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UTF-8 and back. If your database already is UTF-8, no conversion will
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be done, but the message will be tagged as UTF-8. Without this option
799
Applies to: pgp_sym_encrypt, pgp_pub_encrypt
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<title>Generating PGP Keys with GnuPG</title>
808
To generate a new key:
814
The preferred key type is <quote>DSA and Elgamal</>.
817
For RSA encryption you must create either DSA or RSA sign-only key
818
as master and then add an RSA encryption subkey with
819
<literal>gpg --edit-key</literal>.
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gpg --list-secret-keys
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To export a public key in ASCII-armor format:
830
gpg -a --export KEYID > public.key
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To export a secret key in ASCII-armor format:
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gpg -a --export-secret-keys KEYID > secret.key
840
You need to use <function>dearmor()</> on these keys before giving them to
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the PGP functions. Or if you can handle binary data, you can drop
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<literal>-a</literal> from the command.
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For more details see <literal>man gpg</literal>,
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<ulink url="http://www.gnupg.org/gph/en/manual.html">The GNU
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Privacy Handbook</ulink> and other documentation on
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<ulink url="http://www.gnupg.org"></ulink>.
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<title>Limitations of PGP Code</title>
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No support for signing. That also means that it is not checked
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whether the encryption subkey belongs to the master key.
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No support for encryption key as master key. As such practice
865
is generally discouraged, this should not be a problem.
870
No support for several subkeys. This may seem like a problem, as this
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is common practice. On the other hand, you should not use your regular
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GPG/PGP keys with <filename>pgcrypto</>, but create new ones,
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as the usage scenario is rather different.
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<title>Raw Encryption Functions</title>
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These functions only run a cipher over data; they don't have any advanced
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features of PGP encryption. Therefore they have some major problems:
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They use user key directly as cipher key.
895
They don't provide any integrity checking, to see
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if the encrypted data was modified.
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They expect that users manage all encryption parameters
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They don't handle text.
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So, with the introduction of PGP encryption, usage of raw
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encryption functions is discouraged.
917
encrypt(data bytea, key bytea, type text) returns bytea
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decrypt(data bytea, key bytea, type text) returns bytea
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encrypt_iv(data bytea, key bytea, iv bytea, type text) returns bytea
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decrypt_iv(data bytea, key bytea, iv bytea, type text) returns bytea
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Encrypt/decrypt data using the cipher method specified by
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<parameter>type</parameter>. The syntax of the
927
<parameter>type</parameter> string is:
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<replaceable>algorithm</> <optional> <literal>-</> <replaceable>mode</> </optional> <optional> <literal>/pad:</> <replaceable>padding</> </optional>
932
where <replaceable>algorithm</> is one of:
935
<listitem><para><literal>bf</literal> — Blowfish</para></listitem>
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<listitem><para><literal>aes</literal> — AES (Rijndael-128)</para></listitem>
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and <replaceable>mode</> is one of:
942
<literal>cbc</literal> — next block depends on previous (default)
947
<literal>ecb</literal> — each block is encrypted separately (for
952
and <replaceable>padding</> is one of:
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<literal>pkcs</literal> — data may be any length (default)
961
<literal>none</literal> — data must be multiple of cipher block size
967
So, for example, these are equivalent:
969
encrypt(data, 'fooz', 'bf')
970
encrypt(data, 'fooz', 'bf-cbc/pad:pkcs')
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In <function>encrypt_iv</> and <function>decrypt_iv</>, the
975
<parameter>iv</> parameter is the initial value for the CBC mode;
976
it is ignored for ECB.
977
It is clipped or padded with zeroes if not exactly block size.
978
It defaults to all zeroes in the functions without this parameter.
983
<title>Random-Data Functions</title>
986
gen_random_bytes(count integer) returns bytea
989
Returns <parameter>count</> cryptographically strong random bytes.
990
At most 1024 bytes can be extracted at a time. This is to avoid
991
draining the randomness generator pool.
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<title>Configuration</title>
1002
<filename>pgcrypto</> configures itself according to the findings of the
1003
main PostgreSQL <literal>configure</literal> script. The options that
1004
affect it are <literal>--with-zlib</literal> and
1005
<literal>--with-openssl</literal>.
1009
When compiled with zlib, PGP encryption functions are able to
1010
compress data before encrypting.
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When compiled with OpenSSL, there will be more algorithms available.
1015
Also public-key encryption functions will be faster as OpenSSL
1016
has more optimized BIGNUM functions.
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<table id="pgcrypto-with-without-openssl">
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<title>Summary of Functionality with and without OpenSSL</title>
1024
<entry>Functionality</entry>
1025
<entry>Built-in</entry>
1026
<entry>With OpenSSL</entry>
1041
<entry>SHA224/256/384/512</entry>
1043
<entry>yes (Note 1)</entry>
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<entry>Other digest algorithms</entry>
1048
<entry>yes (Note 2)</entry>
1051
<entry>Blowfish</entry>
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<entry>yes (Note 3)</entry>
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<entry>DES/3DES/CAST5</entry>
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<entry>Raw encryption</entry>
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<entry>PGP Symmetric encryption</entry>
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<entry>PGP Public-Key encryption</entry>
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SHA2 algorithms were added to OpenSSL in version 0.9.8. For
1092
older versions, <filename>pgcrypto</> will use built-in code.
1097
Any digest algorithm OpenSSL supports is automatically picked up.
1098
This is not possible with ciphers, which need to be supported
1104
AES is included in OpenSSL since version 0.9.7. For
1105
older versions, <filename>pgcrypto</> will use built-in code.
1112
<title>NULL Handling</title>
1115
As is standard in SQL, all functions return NULL, if any of the arguments
1116
are NULL. This may create security risks on careless usage.
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<title>Security Limitations</title>
1124
All <filename>pgcrypto</> functions run inside the database server.
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the data and passwords move between <filename>pgcrypto</> and client
1127
applications in clear text. Thus you must:
1132
<para>Connect locally or use SSL connections.</para>
1135
<para>Trust both system and database administrator.</para>
1140
If you cannot, then better do crypto inside client application.
1145
<title>Useful Reading</title>
1149
<para><ulink url="http://www.gnupg.org/gph/en/manual.html"></ulink></para>
1150
<para>The GNU Privacy Handbook.</para>
1153
<para><ulink url="http://www.openwall.com/crypt/"></ulink></para>
1154
<para>Describes the crypt-blowfish algorithm.</para>
1158
<ulink url="http://www.stack.nl/~galactus/remailers/passphrase-faq.html"></ulink>
1160
<para>How to choose a good password.</para>
1163
<para><ulink url="http://world.std.com/~reinhold/diceware.html"></ulink></para>
1164
<para>Interesting idea for picking passwords.</para>
1168
<ulink url="http://www.interhack.net/people/cmcurtin/snake-oil-faq.html"></ulink>
1170
<para>Describes good and bad cryptography.</para>
1176
<title>Technical References</title>
1180
<para><ulink url="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4880.txt"></ulink></para>
1181
<para>OpenPGP message format.</para>
1184
<para><ulink url="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1321.txt"></ulink></para>
1185
<para>The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm.</para>
1188
<para><ulink url="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2104.txt"></ulink></para>
1189
<para>HMAC: Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.</para>
1193
<ulink url="http://www.usenix.org/events/usenix99/provos.html"></ulink>
1195
<para>Comparison of crypt-des, crypt-md5 and bcrypt algorithms.</para>
1198
<para><ulink url="http://csrc.nist.gov/cryptval/des.htm"></ulink></para>
1199
<para>Standards for DES, 3DES and AES.</para>
1203
<ulink url="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortuna_(PRNG)"></ulink>
1205
<para>Description of Fortuna CSPRNG.</para>
1208
<para><ulink url="http://jlcooke.ca/random/"></ulink></para>
1209
<para>Jean-Luc Cooke Fortuna-based <filename>/dev/random</> driver for Linux.</para>
1212
<para><ulink url="http://research.cyber.ee/~lipmaa/crypto/"></ulink></para>
1213
<para>Collection of cryptology pointers.</para>
1220
<title>Author</title>
1223
Marko Kreen <email>markokr@gmail.com</email>
1227
<filename>pgcrypto</filename> uses code from the following sources:
1234
<entry>Algorithm</entry>
1235
<entry>Author</entry>
1236
<entry>Source origin</entry>
1241
<entry>DES crypt</entry>
1242
<entry>David Burren and others</entry>
1243
<entry>FreeBSD libcrypt</entry>
1246
<entry>MD5 crypt</entry>
1247
<entry>Poul-Henning Kamp</entry>
1248
<entry>FreeBSD libcrypt</entry>
1251
<entry>Blowfish crypt</entry>
1252
<entry>Solar Designer</entry>
1253
<entry>www.openwall.com</entry>
1256
<entry>Blowfish cipher</entry>
1257
<entry>Simon Tatham</entry>
1258
<entry>PuTTY</entry>
1261
<entry>Rijndael cipher</entry>
1262
<entry>Brian Gladman</entry>
1263
<entry>OpenBSD sys/crypto</entry>
1266
<entry>MD5 and SHA1</entry>
1267
<entry>WIDE Project</entry>
1268
<entry>KAME kame/sys/crypto</entry>
1271
<entry>SHA256/384/512 </entry>
1272
<entry>Aaron D. Gifford</entry>
1273
<entry>OpenBSD sys/crypto</entry>
1276
<entry>BIGNUM math</entry>
1277
<entry>Michael J. Fromberger</entry>
1278
<entry>dartmouth.edu/~sting/sw/imath</entry>
added
removed
doc/src/sgml/pgcrypto.sgml
