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@node Non-Local Exits, Signal Handling, Resource Usage And Limitation, Top
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@c %MENU% Jumping out of nested function calls
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@chapter Non-Local Exits
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@cindex non-local exits
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Sometimes when your program detects an unusual situation inside a deeply
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nested set of function calls, you would like to be able to immediately
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return to an outer level of control. This section describes how you can
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do such @dfn{non-local exits} using the @code{setjmp} and @code{longjmp}
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* Intro: Non-Local Intro. When and how to use these facilities.
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* Details: Non-Local Details. Functions for non-local exits.
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* Non-Local Exits and Signals:: Portability issues.
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* System V contexts:: Complete context control a la System V.
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@node Non-Local Intro, Non-Local Details, , Non-Local Exits
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@section Introduction to Non-Local Exits
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As an example of a situation where a non-local exit can be useful,
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suppose you have an interactive program that has a ``main loop'' that
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prompts for and executes commands. Suppose the ``read'' command reads
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input from a file, doing some lexical analysis and parsing of the input
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while processing it. If a low-level input error is detected, it would
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be useful to be able to return immediately to the ``main loop'' instead
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of having to make each of the lexical analysis, parsing, and processing
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phases all have to explicitly deal with error situations initially
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detected by nested calls.
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(On the other hand, if each of these phases has to do a substantial
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amount of cleanup when it exits---such as closing files, deallocating
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buffers or other data structures, and the like---then it can be more
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appropriate to do a normal return and have each phase do its own
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cleanup, because a non-local exit would bypass the intervening phases and
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their associated cleanup code entirely. Alternatively, you could use a
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non-local exit but do the cleanup explicitly either before or after
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returning to the ``main loop''.)
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In some ways, a non-local exit is similar to using the @samp{return}
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statement to return from a function. But while @samp{return} abandons
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only a single function call, transferring control back to the point at
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which it was called, a non-local exit can potentially abandon many
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levels of nested function calls.
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You identify return points for non-local exits by calling the function
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@code{setjmp}. This function saves information about the execution
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environment in which the call to @code{setjmp} appears in an object of
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type @code{jmp_buf}. Execution of the program continues normally after
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the call to @code{setjmp}, but if an exit is later made to this return
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point by calling @code{longjmp} with the corresponding @w{@code{jmp_buf}}
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object, control is transferred back to the point where @code{setjmp} was
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called. The return value from @code{setjmp} is used to distinguish
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between an ordinary return and a return made by a call to
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@code{longjmp}, so calls to @code{setjmp} usually appear in an @samp{if}
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Here is how the example program described above might be set up:
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@include setjmp.c.texi
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The function @code{abort_to_main_loop} causes an immediate transfer of
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control back to the main loop of the program, no matter where it is
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The flow of control inside the @code{main} function may appear a little
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mysterious at first, but it is actually a common idiom with
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@code{setjmp}. A normal call to @code{setjmp} returns zero, so the
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``else'' clause of the conditional is executed. If
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@code{abort_to_main_loop} is called somewhere within the execution of
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@code{do_command}, then it actually appears as if the @emph{same} call
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to @code{setjmp} in @code{main} were returning a second time with a value
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So, the general pattern for using @code{setjmp} looks something like:
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if (setjmp (@var{buffer}))
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/* @r{Code to clean up after premature return.} */
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/* @r{Code to be executed normally after setting up the return point.} */
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@node Non-Local Details, Non-Local Exits and Signals, Non-Local Intro, Non-Local Exits
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@section Details of Non-Local Exits
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Here are the details on the functions and data structures used for
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performing non-local exits. These facilities are declared in
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@deftp {Data Type} jmp_buf
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Objects of type @code{jmp_buf} hold the state information to
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be restored by a non-local exit. The contents of a @code{jmp_buf}
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identify a specific place to return to.
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@deftypefn Macro int setjmp (jmp_buf @var{state})
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When called normally, @code{setjmp} stores information about the
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execution state of the program in @var{state} and returns zero. If
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@code{longjmp} is later used to perform a non-local exit to this
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@var{state}, @code{setjmp} returns a nonzero value.
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@deftypefun void longjmp (jmp_buf @var{state}, int @var{value})
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This function restores current execution to the state saved in
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@var{state}, and continues execution from the call to @code{setjmp} that
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established that return point. Returning from @code{setjmp} by means of
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@code{longjmp} returns the @var{value} argument that was passed to
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@code{longjmp}, rather than @code{0}. (But if @var{value} is given as
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@code{0}, @code{setjmp} returns @code{1}).@refill
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There are a lot of obscure but important restrictions on the use of
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@code{setjmp} and @code{longjmp}. Most of these restrictions are
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present because non-local exits require a fair amount of magic on the
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part of the C compiler and can interact with other parts of the language
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The @code{setjmp} function is actually a macro without an actual
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function definition, so you shouldn't try to @samp{#undef} it or take
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its address. In addition, calls to @code{setjmp} are safe in only the
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As the test expression of a selection or iteration
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statement (such as @samp{if}, @samp{switch}, or @samp{while}).
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As one operand of a equality or comparison operator that appears as the
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test expression of a selection or iteration statement. The other
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operand must be an integer constant expression.
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As the operand of a unary @samp{!} operator, that appears as the
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test expression of a selection or iteration statement.
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By itself as an expression statement.
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Return points are valid only during the dynamic extent of the function
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that called @code{setjmp} to establish them. If you @code{longjmp} to
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a return point that was established in a function that has already
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returned, unpredictable and disastrous things are likely to happen.
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You should use a nonzero @var{value} argument to @code{longjmp}. While
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@code{longjmp} refuses to pass back a zero argument as the return value
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from @code{setjmp}, this is intended as a safety net against accidental
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misuse and is not really good programming style.
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When you perform a non-local exit, accessible objects generally retain
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whatever values they had at the time @code{longjmp} was called. The
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exception is that the values of automatic variables local to the
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function containing the @code{setjmp} call that have been changed since
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the call to @code{setjmp} are indeterminate, unless you have declared
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them @code{volatile}.
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@node Non-Local Exits and Signals, System V contexts, Non-Local Details, Non-Local Exits
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@section Non-Local Exits and Signals
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In BSD Unix systems, @code{setjmp} and @code{longjmp} also save and
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restore the set of blocked signals; see @ref{Blocking Signals}. However,
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the POSIX.1 standard requires @code{setjmp} and @code{longjmp} not to
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change the set of blocked signals, and provides an additional pair of
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functions (@code{sigsetjmp} and @code{siglongjmp}) to get the BSD
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The behavior of @code{setjmp} and @code{longjmp} in the GNU library is
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controlled by feature test macros; see @ref{Feature Test Macros}. The
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default in the GNU system is the POSIX.1 behavior rather than the BSD
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The facilities in this section are declared in the header file
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@deftp {Data Type} sigjmp_buf
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This is similar to @code{jmp_buf}, except that it can also store state
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information about the set of blocked signals.
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@deftypefun int sigsetjmp (sigjmp_buf @var{state}, int @var{savesigs})
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This is similar to @code{setjmp}. If @var{savesigs} is nonzero, the set
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of blocked signals is saved in @var{state} and will be restored if a
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@code{siglongjmp} is later performed with this @var{state}.
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@deftypefun void siglongjmp (sigjmp_buf @var{state}, int @var{value})
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This is similar to @code{longjmp} except for the type of its @var{state}
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argument. If the @code{sigsetjmp} call that set this @var{state} used a
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nonzero @var{savesigs} flag, @code{siglongjmp} also restores the set of
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@node System V contexts,, Non-Local Exits and Signals, Non-Local Exits
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@section Complete Context Control
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The Unix standard one more set of function to control the execution path
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and these functions are more powerful than those discussed in this
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chapter so far. These function were part of the original @w{System V}
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API and by this route were added to the Unix API. Beside on branded
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Unix implementations these interfaces are not widely available. Not all
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platforms and/or architectures the GNU C Library is available on provide
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this interface. Use @file{configure} to detect the availability.
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Similar to the @code{jmp_buf} and @code{sigjmp_buf} types used for the
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variables to contain the state of the @code{longjmp} functions the
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interfaces of interest here have an appropriate type as well. Objects
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of this type are normally much larger since more information is
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contained. The type is also used in a few more places as we will see.
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The types and functions described in this section are all defined and
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declared respectively in the @file{ucontext.h} header file.
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@deftp {Data Type} ucontext_t
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The @code{ucontext_t} type is defined as a structure with as least the
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@item ucontext_t *uc_link
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This is a pointer to the next context structure which is used if the
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context described in the current structure returns.
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@item sigset_t uc_sigmask
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Set of signals which are blocked when this context is used.
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@item stack_t uc_stack
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Stack used for this context. The value need not be (and normally is
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not) the stack pointer. @xref{Signal Stack}.
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@item mcontext_t uc_mcontext
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This element contains the actual state of the process. The
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@code{mcontext_t} type is also defined in this header but the definition
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should be treated as opaque. Any use of knowledge of the type makes
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applications less portable.
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Objects of this type have to be created by the user. The initialization
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and modification happens through one of the following functions:
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@deftypefun int getcontext (ucontext_t *@var{ucp})
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The @code{getcontext} function initializes the variable pointed to by
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@var{ucp} with the context of the calling thread. The context contains
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the content of the registers, the signal mask, and the current stack.
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Executing the contents would start at the point where the
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@code{getcontext} call just returned.
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The function returns @code{0} if successful. Otherwise it returns
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@code{-1} and sets @var{errno} accordingly.
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The @code{getcontext} function is similar to @code{setjmp} but it does
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not provide an indication of whether the function returns for the first
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time or whether the initialized context was used and the execution is
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resumed at just that point. If this is necessary the user has to take
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determine this herself. This must be done carefully since the context
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contains registers which might contain register variables. This is a
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good situation to define variables with @code{volatile}.
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Once the context variable is initialized it can be used as is or it can
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be modified. The latter is normally done to implement co-routines or
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similar constructs. The @code{makecontext} function is what has to be
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@deftypefun void makecontext (ucontext_t *@var{ucp}, void (*@var{func}) (void), int @var{argc}, @dots{})
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The @var{ucp} parameter passed to the @code{makecontext} shall be
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initialized by a call to @code{getcontext}. The context will be
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modified to in a way so that if the context is resumed it will start by
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calling the function @code{func} which gets @var{argc} integer arguments
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passed. The integer arguments which are to be passed should follow the
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@var{argc} parameter in the call to @code{makecontext}.
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Before the call to this function the @code{uc_stack} and @code{uc_link}
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element of the @var{ucp} structure should be initialized. The
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@code{uc_stack} element describes the stack which is used for this
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context. No two contexts which are used at the same time should use the
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same memory region for a stack.
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The @code{uc_link} element of the object pointed to by @var{ucp} should
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be a pointer to the context to be executed when the function @var{func}
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returns or it should be a null pointer. See @code{setcontext} for more
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information about the exact use.
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While allocating the memory for the stack one has to be careful. Most
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modern processors keep track of whether a certain memory region is
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allowed to contain code which is executed or not. Data segments and
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heap memory is normally not tagged to allow this. The result is that
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programs would fail. Examples for such code include the calling
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sequences the GNU C compiler generates for calls to nested functions.
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Safe ways to allocate stacks correctly include using memory on the
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original threads stack or explicitly allocate memory tagged for
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execution using (@pxref{Memory-mapped I/O}).
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@strong{Compatibility note}: The current Unix standard is very imprecise
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about the way the stack is allocated. All implementations seem to agree
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that the @code{uc_stack} element must be used but the values stored in
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the elements of the @code{stack_t} value are unclear. The GNU C library
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and most other Unix implementations require the @code{ss_sp} value of
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the @code{uc_stack} element to point to the base of the memory region
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allocated for the stack and the size of the memory region is stored in
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@code{ss_size}. There are implements out there which require
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@code{ss_sp} to be set to the value the stack pointer will have (which
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can depending on the direction the stack grows be different). This
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difference makes the @code{makecontext} function hard to use and it
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requires detection of the platform at compile time.
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@deftypefun int setcontext (const ucontext_t *@var{ucp})
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The @code{setcontext} function restores the context described by
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@var{ucp}. The context is not modified and can be reused as often as
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If the context was created by @code{getcontext} execution resumes with
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the registers filled with the same values and the same stack as if the
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@code{getcontext} call just returned.
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If the context was modified with a call to @code{makecontext} execution
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continues with the function passed to @code{makecontext} which gets the
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specified parameters passed. If this function returns execution is
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resumed in the context which was referenced by the @code{uc_link}
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element of the context structure passed to @code{makecontext} at the
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time of the call. If @code{uc_link} was a null pointer the application
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terminates in this case.
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Since the context contains information about the stack no two threads
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should use the same context at the same time. The result in most cases
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The @code{setcontext} function does not return unless an error occurred
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in which case it returns @code{-1}.
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The @code{setcontext} function simply replaces the current context with
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the one described by the @var{ucp} parameter. This is often useful but
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there are situations where the current context has to be preserved.
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@deftypefun int swapcontext (ucontext_t *restrict @var{oucp}, const ucontext_t *restrict @var{ucp})
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The @code{swapcontext} function is similar to @code{setcontext} but
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instead of just replacing the current context the latter is first saved
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in the object pointed to by @var{oucp} as if this was a call to
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@code{getcontext}. The saved context would resume after the call to
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Once the current context is saved the context described in @var{ucp} is
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installed and execution continues as described in this context.
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If @code{swapcontext} succeeds the function does not return unless the
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context @var{oucp} is used without prior modification by
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@code{makecontext}. The return value in this case is @code{0}. If the
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function fails it returns @code{-1} and set @var{errno} accordingly.
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@heading Example for SVID Context Handling
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The easiest way to use the context handling functions is as a
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replacement for @code{setjmp} and @code{longjmp}. The context contains
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on most platforms more information which might lead to less surprises
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but this also means using these functions is more expensive (beside
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being less portable).
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random_search (int n, int (*fp) (int, ucontext_t *))
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volatile int cnt = 0;
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/* @r{Safe current context.} */
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if (getcontext (&uc) < 0)
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/* @r{If we have not tried @var{n} times try again.} */
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/* @r{Call the function with a new random number}
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@r{and the context}. */
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if (fp (rand (), &uc) != 0)
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/* @r{We found what we were looking for.} */
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Using contexts in such a way enables emulating exception handling. The
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search functions passed in the @var{fp} parameter could be very large,
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nested, and complex which would make it complicated (or at least would
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require a lot of code) to leave the function with an error value which
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has to be passed down to the caller. By using the context it is
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possible to leave the search function in one step and allow restarting
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the search which also has the nice side effect that it can be
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significantly faster.
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Something which is harder to implement with @code{setjmp} and
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@code{longjmp} is to switch temporarily to a different execution path
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and then resume where execution was stopped.
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@include swapcontext.c.texi
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This an example how the context functions can be used to implement
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co-routines or cooperative multi-threading. All that has to be done is
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to call every once in a while @code{swapcontext} to continue running a
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different context. It is not allowed to do the context switching from
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the signal handler directly since neither @code{setcontext} nor
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@code{swapcontext} are functions which can be called from a signal
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handler. But setting a variable in the signal handler and checking it
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in the body of the functions which are executed. Since
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@code{swapcontext} is saving the current context it is possible to have
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multiple different scheduling points in the code. Execution will always
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resume where it was left.