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What's New In Python 3.1
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:Author: Raymond Hettinger
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* Anyone can add text to this document. Do not spend very much time
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on the wording of your changes, because your text will probably
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get rewritten to some degree.
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* The maintainer will go through Misc/NEWS periodically and add
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changes; it's therefore more important to add your changes to
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Misc/NEWS than to this file.
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* This is not a complete list of every single change; completeness
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is the purpose of Misc/NEWS. Some changes I consider too small
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or esoteric to include. If such a change is added to the text,
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I'll just remove it. (This is another reason you shouldn't spend
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too much time on writing your addition.)
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* If you want to draw your new text to the attention of the
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maintainer, add 'XXX' to the beginning of the paragraph or
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* It's OK to just add a fragmentary note about a change. For
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example: "XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the
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socket module." The maintainer will research the change and
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write the necessary text.
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* You can comment out your additions if you like, but it's not
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necessary (especially when a final release is some months away).
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* Credit the author of a patch or bugfix. Just the name is
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sufficient; the e-mail address isn't necessary.
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* It's helpful to add the bug/patch number as a comment:
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XXX Describe the transmogrify() function added to the socket
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(Contributed by P.Y. Developer.)
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This saves the maintainer the effort of going through the SVN log
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when researching a change.
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This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0.
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PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
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=============================
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Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order.
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Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations
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that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted. Based on
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the experiences from those implementations, a new
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:class:`collections.OrderedDict` class has been introduced.
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The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries
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but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on
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when a key was first inserted. If a new entry overwrites an existing entry,
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the original insertion position is left unchanged. Deleting an entry and
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reinserting it will move it to the end.
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The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
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modules. The :mod:`configparser` module uses them by default. This lets
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configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in their original
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order. The *_asdict()* method for :func:`collections.namedtuple` now
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returns an ordered dictionary with the values appearing in the same order as
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the underlying tuple indicies. The :mod:`json` module is being built-out with
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an *object_pairs_hook* to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder.
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Support was also added for third-party tools like `PyYAML <http://pyyaml.org/>`_.
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:pep:`372` - Ordered Dictionaries
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PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger. Implementation
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written by Raymond Hettinger.
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PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
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=================================================
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The built-in :func:`format` function and the :meth:`str.format` method use
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a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale aware way to format
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a number with a thousands separator. That provides a way to humanize a
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program's output, improving its professional appearance and readability::
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>>> format(1234567, ',d')
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>>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f')
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>>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f')
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'12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j'
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>>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f')
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The supported types are :class:`int`, :class:`float`, :class:`complex`
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and :class:`decimal.Decimal`.
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Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators
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like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores. Locale-aware applications
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should use the existing *n* format specifier which already has some support
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for thousands separators.
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:pep:`378` - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
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PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and
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Other Language Changes
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======================
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Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
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* Directories and zip archives containing a :file:`__main__.py`
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file can now be executed directly by passing their name to the
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interpreter. The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the
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first entry in sys.path. (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu;
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revised patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; :issue:`1739468`.)
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* The :func:`int` type gained a ``bit_length`` method that returns the
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number of bits necessary to represent its argument in binary::
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>>> (n+1).bit_length()
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(Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond Hettinger,
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and Mark Dickinson; :issue:`3439`.)
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* The fields in :func:`format` strings can now be automatically
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>>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot')
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'Sir Gallahad of Camelot'
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Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as:
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``'Sir {0} of {1}'``.
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(Contributed by Eric Smith; :issue:`5237`.)
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* The :func:`string.maketrans` function is deprecated and is replaced by new
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static methods, :meth:`bytes.maketrans` and :meth:`bytearray.maketrans`.
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This change solves the confusion around which types were supported by the
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:mod:`string` module. Now, :class:`str`, :class:`bytes`, and
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:class:`bytearray` each have their own **maketrans** and **translate**
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methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.
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(Contributed by Georg Brandl; :issue:`5675`.)
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* The syntax of the :keyword:`with` statement now allows multiple context
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managers in a single statement::
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>>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
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... for line in infile:
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... if '<critical>' in line:
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... outfile.write(line)
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With the new syntax, the :func:`contextlib.nested` function is no longer
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needed and is now deprecated.
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(Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström;
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`appspot issue 53094 <https://codereview.appspot.com/53094>`_.)
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* ``round(x, n)`` now returns an integer if *x* is an integer.
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Previously it returned a float::
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(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4707`.)
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* Python now uses David Gay's algorithm for finding the shortest floating
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point representation that doesn't change its value. This should help
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mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary floating point
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The significance is easily seen with a number like ``1.1`` which does not
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have an exact equivalent in binary floating point. Since there is no exact
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equivalent, an expression like ``float('1.1')`` evaluates to the nearest
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representable value which is ``0x1.199999999999ap+0`` in hex or
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``1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625`` in decimal. That
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nearest value was and still is used in subsequent floating point
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What is new is how the number gets displayed. Formerly, Python used a
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simple approach. The value of ``repr(1.1)`` was computed as ``format(1.1,
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'.17g')`` which evaluated to ``'1.1000000000000001'``. The advantage of
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using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754 guarantees to assure that
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``eval(repr(1.1))`` would round-trip exactly to its original value. The
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disadvantage is that many people found the output to be confusing (mistaking
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intrinsic limitations of binary floating point representation as being a
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problem with Python itself).
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The new algorithm for ``repr(1.1)`` is smarter and returns ``'1.1'``.
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Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations (ones that
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get stored with the same underlying float value) and returns the shortest
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The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when possible, but
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it does not change the underlying values. So, it is still the case that
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``1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3`` even though the representations may suggest otherwise.
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The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying floating
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point implementation. If the required features are not found, the old
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algorithm will continue to be used. Also, the text pickle protocols
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assure cross-platform portability by using the old algorithm.
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(Contributed by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson; :issue:`1580`)
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New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
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=====================================
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* Added a :class:`collections.Counter` class to support convenient
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counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable::
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>>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue'])
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Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})
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(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1696199`.)
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* Added a new module, :mod:`tkinter.ttk` for access to the Tk themed widget set.
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The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the extent possible, the code
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implementing a widget's behavior from the code implementing its appearance.
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(Contributed by Guilherme Polo; :issue:`2983`.)
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* The :class:`gzip.GzipFile` and :class:`bz2.BZ2File` classes now support
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the context management protocol::
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>>> # Automatically close file after writing
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>>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f:
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(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)
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* The :mod:`decimal` module now supports methods for creating a
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decimal object from a binary :class:`float`. The conversion is
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exact but can sometimes be surprising::
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>>> Decimal.from_float(1.1)
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Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
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The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being
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stored for *1.1*. The fraction has many digits because *1.1* cannot
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be exactly represented in binary.
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(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.)
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* The :mod:`itertools` module grew two new functions. The
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:func:`itertools.combinations_with_replacement` function is one of
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four for generating combinatorics including permutations and Cartesian
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products. The :func:`itertools.compress` function mimics its namesake
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from APL. Also, the existing :func:`itertools.count` function now has
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an optional *step* argument and can accept any type of counting
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sequence including :class:`fractions.Fraction` and
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:class:`decimal.Decimal`::
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>>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)]
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['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE']
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>>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0]))
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>>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6))
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>>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)]
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[Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]
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(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)
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* :func:`collections.namedtuple` now supports a keyword argument
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*rename* which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically converted to
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positional names in the form _0, _1, etc. This is useful when
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the field names are being created by an external source such as a
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CSV header, SQL field list, or user input::
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SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept
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>>> cursor.execute(query)
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>>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
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>>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True)
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>>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor])
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[UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185),
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UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37),
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UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)]
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(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1818`.)
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* The :func:`re.sub`, :func:`re.subn` and :func:`re.split` functions now
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accept a flags parameter.
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(Contributed by Gregory Smith.)
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* The :mod:`logging` module now implements a simple :class:`logging.NullHandler`
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class for applications that are not using logging but are calling
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library code that does. Setting-up a null handler will suppress
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spurious warnings such as "No handlers could be found for logger foo"::
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>>> h = logging.NullHandler()
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>>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h)
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(Contributed by Vinay Sajip; :issue:`4384`).
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* The :mod:`runpy` module which supports the ``-m`` command line switch
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now supports the execution of packages by looking for and executing
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a ``__main__`` submodule when a package name is supplied.
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(Contributed by Andi Vajda; :issue:`4195`.)
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* The :mod:`pdb` module can now access and display source code loaded via
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:mod:`zipimport` (or any other conformant :pep:`302` loader).
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(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; :issue:`4201`.)
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* :class:`functools.partial` objects can now be pickled.
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(Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller. Implemented by
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Jack Diederich; :issue:`5228`.)
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* Add :mod:`pydoc` help topics for symbols so that ``help('@')``
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works as expected in the interactive environment.
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(Contributed by David Laban; :issue:`4739`.)
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* The :mod:`unittest` module now supports skipping individual tests or classes
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of tests. And it supports marking a test as an expected failure, a test that
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is known to be broken, but shouldn't be counted as a failure on a
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class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase):
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@unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
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def test_gizmo_on_windows(self):
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@unittest.expectedFailure
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def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self):
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Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context managers
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using the :keyword:`with` statement::
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def test_division_by_zero(self):
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with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
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In addition, several new assertion methods were added including
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:func:`assertSetEqual`, :func:`assertDictEqual`,
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:func:`assertDictContainsSubset`, :func:`assertListEqual`,
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:func:`assertTupleEqual`, :func:`assertSequenceEqual`,
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:func:`assertRaisesRegexp`, :func:`assertIsNone`,
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and :func:`assertIsNotNone`.
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(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson and Antoine Pitrou.)
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* The :mod:`io` module has three new constants for the :meth:`seek`
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method :data:`SEEK_SET`, :data:`SEEK_CUR`, and :data:`SEEK_END`.
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* The :attr:`sys.version_info` tuple is now a named tuple::
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sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2)
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(Contributed by Ross Light; :issue:`4285`.)
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* The :mod:`nntplib` and :mod:`imaplib` modules now support IPv6.
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(Contributed by Derek Morr; :issue:`1655` and :issue:`1664`.)
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* The :mod:`pickle` module has been adapted for better interoperability with
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Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or lower. The reorganization of the
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standard library changed the formal reference for many objects. For
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example, ``__builtin__.set`` in Python 2 is called ``builtins.set`` in Python
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3. This change confounded efforts to share data between different versions of
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Python. But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler will
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automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and dumping. This
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remapping is turned-on by default but can be disabled with the *fix_imports*
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>>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0)
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b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
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>>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False)
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b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
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An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that protocol 2
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pickles produced by Python 3.1 won't be readable with Python 3.0. The latest
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pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used when migrating data between
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Python 3.x implementations, as it doesn't attempt to remain compatible with
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(Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti and Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`6137`.)
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* A new module, :mod:`importlib` was added. It provides a complete, portable,
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pure Python reference implementation of the :keyword:`import` statement and its
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counterpart, the :func:`__import__` function. It represents a substantial
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step forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place during
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(Contributed by Brett Cannon.)
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Major performance enhancements have been added:
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* The new I/O library (as defined in :pep:`3116`) was mostly written in
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Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in Python 3.0.
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In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely rewritten in C and is
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2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at hand. The pure Python
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version is still available for experimentation purposes through
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the ``_pyio`` module.
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(Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d'Arc and Antoine Pitrou.)
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* Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only untrackable objects
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are not tracked by the garbage collector. This can reduce the size of
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collections and therefore the garbage collection overhead on long-running
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programs, depending on their particular use of datatypes.
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(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, :issue:`4688`.)
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* Enabling a configure option named ``--with-computed-gotos``
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on compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode
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evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which gives
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speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler, and
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(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou along with a number of other participants,
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* The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times
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(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, :issue:`4868`.)
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* The :mod:`json` module now has a C extension to substantially improve
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its performance. In addition, the API was modified so that json works
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only with :class:`str`, not with :class:`bytes`. That change makes the
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module closely match the `JSON specification <http://json.org/>`_
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which is defined in terms of Unicode.
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(Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine Pitrou
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and Benjamin Peterson; :issue:`4136`.)
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* Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects. This saves
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memory and allows pickles to be smaller.
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(Contributed by Jake McGuire and Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`5084`.)
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* IDLE's format menu now provides an option to strip trailing whitespace
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(Contributed by Roger D. Serwy; :issue:`5150`.)
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Build and C API Changes
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=======================
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Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:
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* Integers are now stored internally either in base 2**15 or in base
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2**30, the base being determined at build time. Previously, they
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were always stored in base 2**15. Using base 2**30 gives
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significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
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benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed. Therefore,
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the default is to use base 2**30 on 64-bit machines and base 2**15
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on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new configure option
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``--enable-big-digits`` that can be used to override this default.
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Apart from the performance improvements this change should be invisible to
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end users, with one exception: for testing and debugging purposes there's a
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new :attr:`sys.int_info` that provides information about the
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internal format, giving the number of bits per digit and the size in bytes
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of the C type used to store each digit::
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sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)
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(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4258`.)
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* The :c:func:`PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong()` function now handles a negative
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*pylong* by raising :exc:`OverflowError` instead of :exc:`TypeError`.
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(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Lisandro Dalcrin; :issue:`5175`.)
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* Deprecated :c:func:`PyNumber_Int`. Use :c:func:`PyNumber_Long` instead.
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(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4910`.)
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* Added a new :c:func:`PyOS_string_to_double` function to replace the
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deprecated functions :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_strtod` and :c:func:`PyOS_ascii_atof`.
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(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`5914`.)
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* Added :c:type:`PyCapsule` as a replacement for the :c:type:`PyCObject` API.
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The principal difference is that the new type has a well defined interface
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for passing typing safety information and a less complicated signature
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for calling a destructor. The old type had a problematic API and is now
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(Contributed by Larry Hastings; :issue:`5630`.)
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Porting to Python 3.1
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=====================
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This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes
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that may require changes to your code:
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* The new floating point string representations can break existing doctests.
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'''Compute the base of natural logarithms.
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return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30)))
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**********************************************************************
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**********************************************************************
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* The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or lower can
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make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0. One solution is to use
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protocol 3. Another solution is to set the *fix_imports* option to ``False``.
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See the discussion above for more details.
added
removed
python-3.5.2-docs-html/_sources/whatsnew/3.1.txt
